In the intellectual life and literature of the Sassanid era the main characteristic is the complete disappearance of Hellenism and the Greek language. Ardashir I. and Shapur I. still appended Greek translations to some of their inscriptions; but all of later date are drawn up in Pahlavi alone. The coins invariably bear a Pahlavi legend—on the obverse the king's head with his name and title ; on the reverse, a fire-altar (generally with the ascrip tion "fire of Ardashir, Shapur, etc.," i.e. the fire of the royal palace), and the name of the place of coinage, usually abbrevi ated. The real missionaries of culture in the empire were the Aramaeans (Syrians), who were connected with the west by their Christianity, and in their translations diffused Greek literature through the Orient. But there also developed a rather extensive Pahlavi literature, beginning with the translations of the sacred books (the Avesta) though not limited to religious subjects, but containing works in belles lettres, modernizations of the old Iranian sagas and native traditions, e.g., the surviving fabulous history of Ardashir I., ethical tales, etc., with translations of foreign literature, principally Indian,—one instance being the celebrated book of tales Kalilah and Dimmah (see SYRIAC LIT ERATURE), dating from Chosroes I., in whose reign chess also was introduced from India.
The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Noldeke's Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari (1879, trans. with notes and excursuses chiefly on the chronology and organization of the empire). On this is based Noldeke's Aufsiitze zur pers. Gesch. (1887), containing a history of the Sassanian empire, pp. 86 sqq. A. Christensen, L'empire des Sassanids (Mem. de l'acad. de Danemark 19°7). For the geography and numerous details of administration: J. Marquart, "Eranshahr" (Abh. d. giitting. Ges. d. Wissensch., 19.01). For the monuments: Flandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse (1851) ; Stolze, Persepolis (1882) ; Dalton, The Treasure of the Oxus (Brit. Mus. 1905) ; Fr. Sarre and E. Herzfeld, Iran Felsreliefs (Iwo) ; Fr. Sarre, die Kunst der Alten Persien (1923).
casional notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads had not ceased, and that the extent of the empire had by no means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion—Sacastene (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east, on both sides of the Indus, the Kushana empire was still in existence, though it was already hastening to decay, and about A.D. 32o was dis placed from its position in India by the Gupta dynasty. In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Carus, burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and reduced Coche (near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden death, in December of 283, precluded further success, and the Roman army returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to effect anything, as his brother Hormuzd was in arms, supported by the Sacae and other tribes. (Mamertin, Panegyr. Maxirnin. 7. 1o; Genethl. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy peace with Diocletian by means of presents. After his death (293), his uncle Narses was forced by his magnates to rebel against Bahram III. and gained the crown. In memory of his victory he has erected a great tower in the mountains west of the upper Diyala, at Paikuli, discovered 1843 by Rawlinson and explored in three expeditions by Herzfeld (published by Herzfeld, Pai Kuli 1924; since then, he has cleared a great number of further blocks of the inscription, which are not yet published). It is covered with his busts and with a large inscription in the two forms of Pahlavi writing, the Parthian and the Persian, of which many blocks have been preserved. It contained an account of the way in which he defeated his opponent, and gives at the end a long list of the kings and dynasts, who sent embassies of congratulation at his accession, headed by the Kushan-shah of India and the Caesar of Rome. From this list we see that the east of Iran did not belong to the empire, but was ruled by a great many local dynasts, some of whom, just as the kings of the Arabic tribes in Babylonia (the Lakhmids of Hira, etc.), may have acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sassanids. After his victory, Narses occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor Galerius at Callinicum (296). But in the following year he sus tained a severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war chest and harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene, were ceded to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Petr. Patr. Jr. 13, 14; Rufus brev. 25). In return Narses regained his household. This peace, ratified in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids from the disputed districts, lasted for 4o years.