NINETEENTH CENTURY EUROPEAN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN The period of the Napoleonic Wars marks a definite break with the older traditions of craftsmanship: European civilization emerged impoverished and found the Industrial Revolution com plete. In the more pretentious wares, the Empire style was a pompous and frigid continuation of the neo-classical, and the "revived rococo" of 182o-5o was one of the first of the series of revivals that make up the greater part of the "styles" of the century. Some of the older factories, such as Meissen and Vienna, were even content to reproduce their former inventions, whilst the Great Exhibition of 1851 saw a general attempt to outdo in "exquisiteness" the most costly Sevres productions of the 18th century. At Sevres itself work of a high order of technical ac complishment was done under the management of Brongniart, who remained director until his death in 1847. In England the porcelain made by the Spodes and their successors Copeland's, of Stoke-on-Trent, by Minton's of the same place, and at Coal port and Swinton (Rockingham factory) was often very credit able technically but artistically of little account.
Amongst the cheaper types of pottery, the cream-coloured earthenware of Staffordshire commanded at the beginning of the century a world-market which it retained for a long time despite Continental rivals perforce driven to make the so called faience anglaise. In France the English method of transfer printed decoration was also adopted, notably at Creil and Mon tereau, and the development of the deposits of kaolin in the neighbourhood of Limoges led to a rapid growth of the pottery industry in that part of the country. In Italy, some distinguished and fanciful painting was done on cream-ware by the firm of Giustiniani of Naples.
After the Great Exhibition, manufacturers began to be aware of "Art," and pottery inspired by Renaissance models—by maio lica, "Palissy ware" and Limoges enamels—made its appearance. The Paris Exhibition of 1867 introduced a fashion for Japanese naturalism and asymmetry, and some European porcelain was even made (as at Worcester) in imitation of the degraded "ex port Satsuma" of the period. The collecting of Turkish and Syrian pottery (called at the time "Rhodian" and "Persian") brought a vogue for designs in the same style, from which issued the work of William de Morgan who at a later stage began to make ruby-lustred wares inspired by Italian ma iolica ; he was also in a sense the representative in pottery of the Morris move ment towards handicraft as against industrial machine-work. In France Theodore Deck made similar essays towards the rich colour of the "Damascus" wares; and indeed the most note worthy pottery of the last forty years of the century was the work of individual artists striving to emulate the great achieve ments of past times. In particular, Chinese single-coloured and flambe glazes inspired the high-fired stonewares and porcelain of Chaplet, Lachenal, Delaherche and Dalpayrat in France, and of Mr. Bernard Moore in England. Mr. William Burton devel oped some distinctive single-coloured glazes and lustre-pigments for Pilkingtons of Manchester, and similar lustred effects were also obtained by Zeolnay of Pecs (Fiinfkirchen) in Hungary, and by the Massiers of Golfe Juan in France. The so-called Arts and
Crafts movement in England, by drawing attention to the virtues of peasant art, brought a sentimental fashion for simpler lead glazed decorative wares ; at Florence the Montelupo style was revived, whilst more or less exact copies of Hispano-Moresque and later Italian maiolica were made by Cantagalli and also by various other potters.
At the older porcelain factories in the latter part of the century some innovations of importance included the crystalline glazes and subdued green, grey, mauve and blue underglaze colours in troduced at the Royal Copenhagen factory, and used for deli cately painted vases and figures of Danish peasants and animals, modelled by some able sculptors. Similar work was and is being done by Bing and Griindahl of the same city, by Heubach of Lichte in Thuringia, and by the Meissen and Ri5rstrand (Stock holm) factories. A mode of impasto decoration, known as pate sur pate, in which successive layers of white or coloured slip were applied to a dark ground, was skilfully practised at Sevres by several artists, notably by Taxile Doat, and was brought to Eng land by M. L. Solon, who worked for Minton's of Stoke-on Trent. This was perhaps the foremost English factory, where Leon Arnoux was director, and the well-known sculptor, A. Carrier-Belleuse (afterwards at Sevres) a principal modeller. At Wedgwood's another French artist, Emile Lessore (who had also been at Minton's), developed a delicate and individual man ner of painting on cream-coloured earthenware.
Salt-glazed stoneware was revived in national styles by Vil leroy and Boch of Mettlach, and by Doulton's of Lambeth, one of whose modellers, R. W. Martin, with his brothers Edwin and Walter, employed the material for grotesque figures and vases which have the merit of attractive colour in their sombre browns and greens, and show, moreover, a true feeling for pottery technique. Equally attractive work in stoneware was done by the French sculptor, Jean Carries, and by E. Bigot of Paris. In Germany, Max Lauger of Karlsruhe developed an interesting style of decoration modelled in slip under coloured glazes. At the national factories of Berlin and Sevres, highly accomplished work was done in many styles, with the support of up-to-date scientific knowledge, and the Paris Exhibition of 19oo marked the culmination of what may be called the eclectic period of European ceramic art. (W. B. Ho.) BIBLIoGRApHy.—General: E. Hannover, Pottery and Porcelain, I. "Europe and the Near East" (London, 1925), a thorough illustrated survey, with full classified bibliography. Italy : 0. von Falke, Majolika (2nd ed., Berlin, 1907), the most authoritative monograph. Nether lands: B. Rackham, Early Netherlands Maiolica (London, 1927). Germany: A. Stoehr, Deutsche Fayencen and deutsches Steingut (Ber lin, 192o) ; 0. Riesebieter, Die deutsche Fayencen des 17 and 18 Jahr hunderts (Leipzig, 1922). France: M. J. Ballot, "La Ceramique fran caise," Documents d'art, Musee du Louvre (Paris, 1924). Spain: P. Param6, La ceramica antigun de Talavera (Madrid, 1919) ; M. Escriva de Romani, conde de Casal, Historia de la ceramica de Alcora (Madrid, 1919). England: B. Rackham and H. Read, English Pottery (London, 1924) •