Portugal

The three principal rivers which flow through Portugal to the sea—the Douro, Tagus and Guadiana—are described in separate articles. The whole country drains into the Atlantic, to which all the main rivers flow in a westerly direction except the Guadiana, which turns south by east in the lower part of its course. The Minho (Spanish Miiio) is the most northerly river of Portugal, and is only inferior to the three great waterways already men tioned. Its length is 170 m. Small coasters can ascend the river as far as Salvatierra in Galicia (2o m.), but larger vessels are ex cluded by a sandy bar at the mouth. Between the Minho and Douro the chief rivers are the Lima (Spanish Limia or Antela), the Cavado, and the Ave. Between the Douro and Tagus the Vouga rises in the Serra da Lapa and reaches the sea through the lagoon of Aveiro ; the Mondego flows north-east through a long ravine in the Serra da Estrella, and then bends back so as to flow west-south-west. Its estuary contains the important harbour of Figueira da Foz; its length is 125 m. of which 52 m. are navigable by small coasters. Portugal abounds in hot and medicinal springs, such as Caldas de Monchique, Caldas da Rainha and Vidago.

Climate.

The climate of Portugal is equable and temperate. Lisbon, Coimbra, Evora and Oporto have mean temperatures between 6o° and 61.5° F, and the daily variation nowhere exceeds 23°. The rainfall has been as heavy as 16 ft. in a year, and some times, as in the winter of 1909-1910, great damage is wrought by floods. Heavy fogs are also common along the coast, render ing it dangerous to ships. The rainfall is heaviest in the north and on the Serra da Estrella; it is least in Algarve. In the deep valleys where the mountains keep off the cool winds, it is exces sively hot in summer while on the summits of the mountains snow lies for many months. The meteorological station on the Serra da Estrella, with a mean annual temperature of F, is the coldest spot in Portugal in which systematic observations are taken. Montalegre has a mean of 48.3° and Guarda of 50.3°. Even in Lisbon the yearly variation is not less than 5o° but it is less at Estoril. In Alentejo the climate is very unfavourable; Algarve (where Lagos has a mean of 63°), is hotter than Alentejo, but a profuse vegetation takes away much of the tropical effect. Portugal is very rarely visited by thunderstorms; but shocks of earthquake are frequent, and recall the great earthquake of Lisbon (q.v.) in 1755.

Fauna and Flora.

An account of the fauna of the Iberian peninsula as a whole is given under SPAIN. Wolves are found in the wilder parts of the Serra da Estrella, and wild boars are preserved in some districts. As far as the constituents of its flora are concerned Portugal is not very dissimilar from Spain, but their distribution is peculiar. The vegetation of Spain is distributed in clearly marked zones ; but over the whole of Portugal, except the hottest parts of Algarve and Alentejo, the plants of northern Europe flourish side by side with cacti, palms, aloes and tree-ferns (see CINTRA). This is largely due to the fact that the moisture laden winds from the Atlantic penetrate almost as far inland as the Portuguese frontier, but do not reach the interior of Spain. The soil is fertile, and the indigenous flora has been greatly enriched by the importation of such plants as the agave, the Mexican opuntia, the American maple, the Australian eucalyptus, the Scotch fir and the so-called Portuguese cypress (Cupressus lusitanica) from the Azores. There are many fine tracts of forest,

among which may be mentioned the famous convent-wood of Bussaco (q.v.) ; cork trees are extensively cultivated, Barbary oaks (Quercus bellota, Port. azinheira) furnish edible acorns and excellent timber for charcoal, and carob-trees (Ceratonia siliqua, Port. alfarrobeira) also produce edible seed-pods somewhat resem bling beans. Elms, limes and poplars are common north of the Tagus, ilex, araucaria, myrtle, magnolia and a great variety of conifers in all parts. The Serra da Estrella has a rich alpine flora, and the lagoon of Aveiro contains many aquatic plants.

Inhabitants.

The birth-rate is about 3o per 1,00o, while the mortality is only about 20 per I,000. Large bodies of emigrants, chiefly recruited from the sober, hardy and industrious peasantry of the northern provinces, annually leave Portugal to seek f or tune in America. A few go to the Portuguese colonies, the great majority to Brazil. Many of these emigrants return with con siderable savings and settle on the land. The mortality is highest among male children, and the normal excess of females is in the proportion of 109 to loo. Six-sevenths of the population of conti nental Portugal inhabit the provinces north of the Tagus. The den sity of population is greatest in Madeira (479.5 per sq.m. in 1900), Entre-Minho-e-Douro (419.5) and the Azores nowhere else does it reach 200 per sq.m. In Alentejo the per centage sinks to 45.1, and for the whole country, including the islands, it amounts only to 152.8.

The Portuguese people is composed of many racial elements. Its earliest known ancestors were the Iberians (q.v.). The peas antry, especially in the north, are closely akin to the Galician and Asturian Spaniards in character, physique and dialect; and these three ethnical groups—Portuguese of the north, Galicians, Astu rians—may perhaps be regarded as the purest representatives of the Spanish stock. The Romans gave to Portugal its language and the foundation of its civilization; there is, however, no evi dence that they seriously modified the physical type or character of its people. In these respects the Suevic and Visigothic conquests left a more permanent impression, especially in the northern provinces. After 711 came the long period of Moorish (i.e., Arab and Berber) predominance. The influence of the Moors was great est south of the Tagus. In Alentejo, and still more in Algarve, Arab and Berber types are common; and the influence of these races can everywhere be discerned in the architecture, handicrafts and speech of the peasantry. An intermediate "Mozarabic" popu lation arose, Portuguese in blood, Christian in religion, but Arab in language and manners. Many of the Mozarabs even adopted the characteristic Mohammedan rite of circumcision. Under the tolerant rule of Islam the Portuguese Jews rose to a height of wealth and culture unparalleled in Europe; they intermarried with the Christians both at this period and after their forced conversion by King Emanuel I. (1495-1521). After 1450 yet another ethnical element was introduced into the nation, through the importation of African slaves in vast numbers. Negroid types are common throughout central and southern Portugal.