Presbyterianism

It was different with the Reformers outside Germany. While Luther studied the Scriptures in search of true doctrine and Chris tian life and was indifferent to forms of church polity, they studied the New Testament not only in search of primitive church doc trine but also of primitive church polity. One is struck by the unanimity with which, working individually and often in lands far apart, they reached the same conclusions. They did not get their ideas of church polity from one another, but drew it directly from the New Testament. They were unanimous in rejecting the epis copacy of the Church of Rome, the sanctity of celibacy, the sacerdotal character of the ministry, the confessional, the pro pitiatory nature of the mass. They were unanimous in adopting the idea of a church in which all the members were priests under the Lord Jesus, the One High Priest and Ruler; the officers of which were not mediators between men and God, but preachers of One Mediator, Christ Jesus ; not lords over God's heritage, but examples to the flock and ministers to render service. They were unanimous in regarding ministerial service as mainly pastoral; preaching, administering the sacraments and visiting from house to house; and, further, in perceiving that Christian ministers must be also spiritual rulers, not in virtue of any magical influence transmitted from the Apostles, but in virtue of their election by the Church and of their appointment in the name of the Lord Jesus. When the conclusions thus reached by many independent investigators were at length reduced to a system by Calvin, in his famous Institutio, it became the definite ideal of church govern ment for all the Reformed, in contradistinction to the Lutheran, churches.

Yet we do not find that the leaders of the Reformed Church succeeded in establishing at once a fully-developed Presbyterian polity. Powerful influences hindered them from realizing their ideal. In the first place, the people generally dreaded the recur rence of ecclesiastical tyranny. A second powerful influence was of a different kind, viz. municipal jealousy of church power. The municipal authority in those times claimed the right to exercise a censorship over the citizens' private life. Any attempt on the part of the Church to exercise discipline was resented as an intrusion. Hence friction, at times, between the Reformers and civic authori ties friendly to the Reformation ; not as to whether there should be "discipline" (that was never doubted) but as to whether it should be ecclesiastical or municipal. Even, therefore, where people de sired the Reformation there were powerful influences opposed to the setting up of church government and to the exercise of church discipline after the manner of the Apostolic Church; and one ceases to wonder at the absence of complete Presbyterianism in the countries which were forward to embrace and adopt the Ref ormation. Indeed the more favourable the secular authorities were to the Reformation the less need was there to discriminate between civil and ecclesiastical power, and to define strictly how the latter should be exercised. We look in vain, therefore, for

much more than the germs and principles of Presbyterianism in the churches of the first Reformers. Its evolution and the thorough application of its principles to actual church life came later, not in Saxony or Switzerland, but in France and Scotland ; and through Scotland it has passed to all English-speaking lands.

Presbyterian Worship.

The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has been marked by extreme simplicity. It con sists of reading of Holy Scripture, psalmody, non-liturgical prayer and preaching. There is nothing in the standards of the Presby terian Church against liturgical worship. In some of the early books of order a few forms of prayer were given, but their use was not compulsory. On the whole, the preponderating preference has always been in favour of so-called extemporaneous, or free prayer ; and the Westminster Directory of Public Worship has to a large extent stereotyped the form and order of the service in most Presbyterian churches. Within certain broad outlines much, perhaps too much, is left to the choice of individual congregations. It used to be customary among Presbyterians to stand during pub lic prayer, and to remain seated during the acts of praise, but this peculiarity is no longer maintained. The psalms rendered into metre were formerly the only vehicle of the Church's public praise, but hymns are now also used in most Presbyterian churches. Rous's version of the Psalms is the best known and most widely used. It is an English work. Somewhat reluctantly it was accepted by Scottish Presbyterianism as a substitute for an older version with a greater variety of metre and music. "Old Hundred" and "Old 124th" mean the Tooth and 124th Psalms in that old book. Organs used to be regarded as contrary to New Testament example, but their use is now all but universal. The public praise used to be led by an individual called the "precentor," who occupied a box in front of, and a little lower than, the pulpit. Choirs of male and female voices now lead the church praise.

Presbyterianism has two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is administered both to infants and adults by pouring or sprinkling, but the mode is considered immaterial. The Lord's Supper, as generally observed throughout the various Presbyterian churches, is a close imitation of the New Testament practice ; and where it is not marred by undue prolixity com mends itself to most Christian people as a solemn and impressive service. The old plan of coming out and taking one's place at the communion table in the body of the church is unhappily seen nc more; communicants now receive the sacred elements seated in their pews. The dispensing of this rite is strictly reserved to an ordained minister, who is assisted by elders in handing the bread and the cup to the people. The administration of private com munion to the sick and dying is extremely rare in Presbyterian churches, but there is less objection to it than formerly, and in some churches it is even encouraged.