Presbyterianism

The Netherlands.

From the geographical position of the Netherlands, Presbyterianism there took its tone from France. In 1562 the Confessio belgica was publicly acknowledged, and in 1563 the church order was arranged. In 1574 the first provincial synod of Holland and Zealand was held, but William of Orange would not allow any action to be taken independently of the state. The Reformed churches had established themselves in independ ence of the state when that state was Catholic ; when the govern ment became Protestant the Church had protection and at the same time became dependent. It was a state church, and could not shake off the civil power in connection with the choice of church officers. Thus, although the congregations were Presby terian, the civil government retained overwhelming influence. The Leiden magistrates said in 1581 : "If we accept everything deter mined upon in the synod, we shall end by being vassals of the synod. We will not open to churchmen a door for a new master ship over government and subjects, wife and child." From 1618 a modified Presbyterian polity predominated. In 1795, of course, everything was upset, and it was not until after the restoration of the Netherland States that a new organization was formed in 1816. Its main features were strictly Presbyterian, but the minis ter was greatly superior to the elder, and the state had wide powers especially in the nomination of higher officers. In 1851 the system now in force was adopted. The congregation chooses all the officers, and these form a church council.

England.—Presbyterian principles and ideas were entertained by many of the leading ecclesiastics in England during the reign of Edward VI. Even the archbishop of Canterbury favoured a modification of episcopacy, and an approach to Presbyterian polity and discipline; but attention was mainly directed to the settlement of doctrine and worship. Cranmer wrote that bishops and priests were not different hut the same in the beginning of Christ's re ligion. Thirteen bishops subscribed to the proposition that in the New Testament there is no mention made of any distinctions or degrees in orders but only deacons and "priests or bishops." As an indication of sympathy with Presbyterianism, it may be noted that Cranmer favoured a proposal for the formation of a council of presbyters in each diocese, and for provincial synods.

During 1567 and 1568 the persecutions in France and Holland drove thousands of Protestants, mostly Presbyterians, to England. In 157o Presbyterian views found a distinguished exponent in Dr. Thomas Cartwright at Cambridge. In 1572 a formal manifesto was published, entitled an Admonition to Parliament, the leading ideas in which were : parity of ministers, appointment of elders and deacons ; election of ministers by the congregation ; objection to prescribed prayer and antiphonal chanting; preaching, the chief duty of a minister; and the power of the magistrates to root out superstition and idolatry. On the 2oth of November 1572 the authors of the "Admonition" set up at Wandsworth what has been called the first presbytery in England. They adopted a purely Presbyterian system which was published as the Orders of Wands worth. Similar associations or presbyteries were formed in London and in the midland and eastern counties; but the privy council was hostile. The temper of Parliament was shown by the introduction

of bills to reduce the position of a bishop to well-nigh that of primus inter pares; to place the power of veto in the congregation; to abolish the canon law and to establish a presbytery in every parish. These proposals were rendered abortive by the unflinching use of the queen's prerogative.

In 1640 Henderson, Baillie, Blair and Gillespie came to London as commissioners from the General Assembly in Scotland, in response to a request from ministers in London who desired to see the Church of England more closely modelled after the Re formed type. They were able men, whose preaching drew great crowds, and increased the desire for the establishment of Presby terianism. In 1642 the Long Parliament abolished Episcopacy (the act to come into force on the 5th of November 1643) ; and summoned an assembly of divines to meet at Westminster in June 1643 to advise parliament as to the new form of Church gov ernment. The Westminster Assembly, through its Confession, Directory and Catechism, has become so associated with the Presbyterian Church that it is difficult to realize that it was not a church court at all, much less a creation of Presbyterianism.

It was a council created by parliament to give advice in church matters at a great crisis in the nation's history ; but its acts, though from the high character and great learning of its members worthy of deepest respect, did not per se bind parliament or indeed anyone. It was, in a very real sense, representative of the whole country, as two members were chosen by parliament from each county. The number summoned was 151, viz., ten lords, twenty members of the House of Commons, and one hundred and twenty one ministers. The ministers were mostly Puritans ; by their or dination, etc., Episcopalian; and for the most part strongly im pressed with the desirability of nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland, and other branches of the Reformed Church on the Continent. About one-half of the members attended regularly. Those who were out-and-out Episcopalians did not attend at all. Apart from these, there were three well-defined parties: (I) those with Presbyterian ideas and sympathies, a great majority ; (2) Erastians, ably represented and led by Selden, Lightfoot and Cole man; (3) Independents, ten or eleven in number, led by Philip Nye, and assured of Cromwell's support. Then there were the Scottish commissioners who, though without votes, took a leading part in the proceedings. Judged by the objects for which it was summoned the Westminster Assembly was a failure, a remarkable failure. Episcopacy, Erastianism and Independency, though of little account in the assembly, were to bulk largely in England's future; while the church polity which the assembly favoured and recommended was to be almost unknown. Judged in other ways, however, the influence of the assembly's labours has been very great. The Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Cate chisms are recognized and venerated standards in all the lands where British Presbyterianism, with its sturdy characteristics, has taken root. And the Directory of Public Worship has shaped and coloured, perhaps too thoroughly, the ritual and atmosphere of every group of Protestant Anglo-Saxon worshippers through out the world, except Episcopalians.