SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, two books of the Old Testament, which in the Jewish canon are ranked among the Former Prophets ( Joshua–Kings) in contrast to the Latter Prophets (Isaiah– Malachi).
Contents.—The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings are made up of a series of extracts from various sources, and freely han dled by copyists down to a late date, as is shown by the numerous and often important variations between the Hebrew text and the Greek version (Septuagint). The main redaction of Judges and Kings was made under the influence of the ideas which charac terize Deuteronomy, that is, after the reforms ascribed to Josiah (2 Ki. xxiii.) ; but in Samuel the "Deuteronomic" hand is much less prominent and the chronological system which runs through Judges and Kings occurs only occasionally.
The book of Samuel completes the history of the "Judges" of Israel (nth century B.c.), and begins by relating the events which led to the institution of the monarchy under Saul, the part played by Samuel being especially prominent (I Sam. i.–xiv.). The interest is then transferred to David, the founder of the Judaean dynasty, and his early life is narrated with great wealth of detail. As Saul loses the divine favour, David's position ad vances, until, after the death of Saul and the overthrow of Israel, he gains the allegiance of a disorganized people (I Sam.
Sam. iv.), and Jerusalem becomes the centre of his empire (v. viii.)—c. I000 B.C. A more connected narrative is now given of the history of David (ix.–xx.), which is separated from the account of his death and Solomon's accession (I Ki. i., ii.) by an appendix of miscellaneous contents (xxi.–xxiv.).
The introductory account (i.–iv. ra) of the birth, dedication and calling of the young prophet Samuel is a valuable picture of religious life at the sanctuary at Shiloh. It is connected by the prophecy of the punishment of the house of Eli (iii. II sqq.) with the defeat of the Israelites by the Philis tines at Ebenezer near Aphek, the loss of the ark (iv. I b-22), and its subsequent fortunes (v.–vii. r). A Philistine oppression of 20 years ends when Samuel, here the recognized "judge" of Israel, gains a great victory at Ebenezer near Mizpah (vii.). But the deliverance of Israel from the Philistines is also ascribed to Saul (xiv.) ; there is no room for both in the history of the prophet (see vii. 14), and it is now generally recognized that two con flicting representations have been combined: (a) vii., viii., x. 17-24, Xii., (b) ix. I–X. 16,
XlV. (See further SAMUEL, SAUL.) The account of Eli, Shiloh and the ark (i.–iii.) is a natural pre lude to iv.–vii., where, however, we lose sight of Samuel and the prophecy. The punishment of Eli and his sons (iv.) becomes a passing interest. The sequel of the defeat in iv. is not stated, although other allusions to the fall of Shiloh (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6, 9, Ps. lxxviii. 6o sqq.), and the subsequent reappearance of the priestly family at Nob (xxi. seq.) suggest that a fuller ac
count of the events must have been extant. A narrative of Eli and the priesthood of Shiloh has probably been used to form an introduction to Samuel's victory (vii.), and it has been supple mented partly by the account of the early life of the future prophet and judge (note the present abrupt introduction of Eli in i. 3) and partly by narratives of the history of the ark (v. seq.). The section was handled at a relatively late period. This is clear from the presence of the Deuteronomic prophecy in ii. 27-36, which hints at the rise of the Zadokite priests of Jeru salem. Also, Hannah's psalm (ii. r–ro)—the prototype of the "Magnificat"—is a post-exilic passage, "probably composed in celebration of some national success" (Driver) ; its present suit ability rests upon the interpretation of verse 5.
Saul's reign is introduced in xiii. r, where a blank has been left for his age at accession (some mss. insert "30") ; the duration of his reign is also textually uncertain. The formula is parallel to that in 2 Sam. ii. ro seq., v. 4 seq., and frequently in the Book of Kings, with the additional feature that the age at accession, there usually confined to the Judaean kings, is here given for the Israelite Saul and his son Ishbosheth (i.e., Ishbaal). The summary in xiv. 47 sqq. is immediately followed by a refer ence to the continuous Philistine warfare (v. 52, contrast vii. 13) which forms an introduction to the life of David. But the sum mary gives a picture of Saul's ability and position which differs so markedly from the subsequent more extensive narratives of David's history that its genuineness has sometimes been ques tioned; nevertheless, it is substantiated by the old poem quoted from the Book of Jashar in 2 Sam. i. 17-27, and a fundamental divergence in the traditions may be assumed. Similarly in 2 Sam. ii. 8-1oa, the length of Ishbaal's reign conflicts with the history of David (ii. II and iv. I–v. 3), and the reorganization of (north) Israel with the aid of Abner does not accord with other tradi tions, which represent David as the deliverer of (all?) Israel from the Philistine yoke (iii. 18, xix. 9). But ii. 8–roa, in com mon with I Sam. xiii.
xiv. 47-51 (cf., also the introduction in I Sam. vii. 2 and the conclusion vii. 15-17), are of a literary character different from the detailed narratives; the redac tional or annalistic style is noticeable, and they contain features characteristic of the annals which form the framework of Kings. In Kings the Israelite and Judaean records are kept carefully separate and the independent standpoint of each is at once ob vious. Here, however, much complication arises frarn the corn bination of traditions of distinct origin, independent records of Saul having been revised or supplemented by writers whose in terest lay in David.