The title of grand duke of Kiev thus lost its importance and with it broke down the unity of Russia. Ducal appanages became independent dukedoms; Russian territory was split in a dozen separate units which waged endless wars against each other. This was the darkest period of Russian his tory. The old Kiev centre suffered the most from these internal dissensions and from incursions from the steppe. The frontier population was nearly exterminated and mixed with Turk ethnic elements. However the ancient tribes remained untouched to the west and north of the river Dnieper. In their midst, about the 14th century appeared new branches of Russian people speak ing their separate dialects: the "Little-Russians" and the "White Russians" (the old "Krivichi").
By and by three distinct centres emerged from the chaos: Galicia, Novgorod and Moscow. Each was characterized by the prevalence of one of three main features of the political life of Russia during the Kiev period. These three features are (I) the popular assembly ("veche") which represent ed the ancient tribal organisation and which met in towns thus consisting chiefly of townsfolk; (2) the princes; (3) the boyars and the "drushin" (comitatus), a landed aristocracy, partly of ancient tribal descent, partly the military companions of the prince at the conquest. This aristocracy developed especially in Galicia where the social structure approximated to western feudalism. On the north-western frontier it was, on the contrary, the democratic element that prevailed. The chief city, Novgorod,
became a republic. "Lord Novgorod the Great" was ruled by a popular assembly (veclie) which elected its mayor (posadnik) and its commandant (tysiatski) and concluded treaties with the dukes who were invited only to watch over the defence. Novgorod had a largely developed trade and enormous dominions extending from its gates and from the mouth of the Neva over the whole Russian north up to the White sea and the Urals. That country was rich in furs, the chief export. The higher class of citizens was here formed of capitalists and rich merchants who at a later date gave an aristocratic tint to the republican rule of Novgorod.
Another element existed in the political structure of central Russia : the backwoods of the Oka and upper Volga. This country was cut off from all European connections. Its population consist ed exclusively of agricultural colonists settled on ducal land. Thus the duke appeared here as a proprietor and organiser of social life. Towns were scarce and the population scattered in clearings. The few veches in the chief towns had no influence ; noble landed pro prietors were completely absent. Thus the power of the duke was here practically unlimited. Ducal psychology was framed accord ingly. Unlike the valiant knights of the south, they formed a dy nasty of great appropriators, stingy and acquisitive, ruling their dukedoms as private estates. They thus accumulated elements of strength which as time went on aided them to become masters of the whole of Russia.