RUTHENIANS, a name also applied to those Ukrainians, or Little Russians, who were formerly Austrian subjects. The name is simply a Latinized form of "Russian," the terms "Red Russian," etc., being due to false derivations. When, however, the early Ruthene states lost their independence, the term "Russia" was monopolized by the Muscovite state which, anxious to deny to the Ruthenes a national individuality, gave them the name of "Little Russians." The Ruthenes themselves adopted the dis tinguishing title of "Ukrainians," i.e., inhabitants of the Turko Tatar frontier in S. Russia. The name Ruthene survived among the subjects of Poland and Lithuania, and later, Austria. The Ruthenians are thus neither more nor less than Ukrainians, and their linguistic and ethnographical features are described under that head. Yet they can be distinguished from the Ukrainians of Russia, both by their separate history (see POLAND, GALICIA) and by their religion. After Galicia and Volhynia came under Polish and Lithuanian rule in the 14th century, their upper classes were soon assimilated into the conquering nations, whose language and Catholic faith they adopted. The peasants sank into a state of great degeneracy, which was largely due to the decadence of their own Orthodox priests; recognizing which, they themselves pro posed union with Rome. This was proclaimed by the Pope and accepted by the Ruthenes at the Union of Brest-Litovsk, Oct. 6-1o, 1596. Under this new "Uniate Church," the Ruthenes retained their Slavonic liturgy and most of the outward forms of the Greek Orthodox Church, while acknowledging the spiritual supremacy of the Pope. Although the two liturgies were nom inally entitled to equal treatment in Poland, actually the Uniate was always treated as inferior, and its adherents sank into a lamentable state of ignorance and poverty, due partly to the exactions of their feudal masters, partly to national oppression, partly to their portentous capacity for consuming fiery liquor, their habit of keeping the holidays of both Julian and Gregorian calendars (in 1860 16 districts in Galicia kept 16o-200 days annually as holidays) and their superstitions (in 1807 a current method of exorcising cattle plague was to place the carcasses of the stricken animals in the wells, pastures and stables of uninfected districts).
On the partition of Poland, a number of Ruthenes passed back under Russian rule. Many of them were quickly reconverted to the orthodox faith, and every effort was made to Russify them. The orthodox propaganda was extended to Galicia (see PAN SLAVISM) but the results were more sensational than practical. The Russian Government systematically discouraged Ruthenian nationalism until after the revolution of 1905, when some relaxa tion was made in the oppressive regulations. Similar efforts were made by the Poles of Galicia, and winked at by the Austrian Government, but here something was done for the Ruthenes. A metropolitan bishopric was founded at Lemberg in 1806, and suffragates added at Przemysl and Stanislaw. In 1877 a Ruthenian chair was established at Lemberg University, but Austria never granted a separate Ruthenian university, in spite of agitation. After the war the largest body of Ruthenes, those in East Galicia, claimed the right of self-determination, but their short lived state was soon absorbed in Poland (see GALICIA). The Ruthenes in the N.E. Carpathians were attributed to Czecho slovakia, special guarantees being laid down for their national autonomy. They were formed into the province of Sub-Car pathian Russia (see Czechoslovakia). The Ruthenes of Bess arabia and the Bukovina came under Rumanian rule (where the State religion was orthodox), with the protection of the Rumanian Minorities Treaty. In 1928 the estimated number of Ruthenes (excluding the Ukrainians of the U.S.S.R.) was: in Po land 3,883,000; in Czechoslovakia, 461,849; in Rumania, 792,000; in the U.S.A., 750,00o; in Canada, 500,000 (where they formed the largest national group, after English and French) ; and small groups in Hungary and Yugoslavia. These figures are conservative estimates ; the real numbers were probably much greater. None of these groups enjoyed complete independence. See UKRAINE, POLAND, RUSSIA, etc. Also the publications of the League for Ukrainian national independence (Geneva 1919-2 2) .
(C. A. M.)