Among the different systems, six are generally recognized as orthodox, as being (either wholly or for the most part) consistent with the Vedic religion—two and two of which are again more closely related to each other than to the rest, viz.: (I) Pfirva-mimainsa (Minuinzsa), and (2) Uttara-mimarysci (Vedanta); (3) Seinkhya, and (4) Yoga; (5) Nyaya, and (6) Vaiieshika.
Mimamsa.—I. The (Pfirva-) Mimainsa (First Inquiry) is not a system of philosophy in the proper sense of the word, but rather a system of dogmatic criticism and scriptural interpretation. It maintains the eternal existence of the Veda, the different parts of which are minutely classified. Its principal object, however, is to ascertain the religious (chiefly ceremonial) duties enjoined in the Veda, and to show how these duties must be performed, and what are the special merits and rewards attaching to them. Hence arises the necessity of determining the principles for rightly inter preting the Vedic texts, as also of what forms its only claim to being classed among speculative systems, namely, a philosophical examination of the means of, and the proper method for, arriving at accurate knowledge. The foundation of this school, as well as the composition of the Sams or aphorisms, the Mimcimsci-darfana, which constitute its chief doctrinal authority, is ascribed to Jai mini. The Sutras were commented on by Sabara Svamin in his Bluishya; and further annotations (Tantra-varttika and gloka varttika) thereon were supplied by the great theologian Kumarila Bhatta (about A.D. 70o). The most approved general introduction to the study of the Mimamsa is the metrical I aiminiya-Nyclya malcivistara, with a prose commentary, both by Madhava Acharya.
Vedanta.-2. The Vedanta philosophy or Uttara-mintainsei (Second Inquiry) in the comparatively primitive form in which it presents itself in most of the older Upanishads, constitutes the earliest phase of sustained metaphysical speculation. In its essen tial features it remains to this day the prevalent belief of Indian thinkers, and enters largely into the religious life and convictions of the people. It is an idealistic monism, which derives the uni verse from an ultimate conscious spiritual principle, the one and only existent from eternity—the Atman, the Self, or the Purusha, the Person, the Brahman. It is this primordial essence or Self that pervades all things, and gives life and light to them, "without being sullied by the visible outward impurities or the miseries of the world, being itself apart"—and into which all things will, through knowledge, ultimately resolve themselves. "The wise who perceive him as being within their own Self, to them belongs eternal peace, not to Others." But, while the commentators never hesitate to interpret the Upanishads as being in perfect agreement with the Vedantic system, as elaborated in later times, there is often considerable difficulty in accepting their explanations. In these treatises only the leading features of the pantheistic theory find utterance, generally in vague and mystic, though often in singularly powerful and poetical language, from which it is not always possible to extract the author's real idea on fundamental points, such as the relation between the Supreme Spirit and the phenomenal world—whether the latter was actually evolved from the former by a power inherent in him, or whether the process is altogether a fiction, an illusion of the individual self.
The foundation of the Vedanta system, as "the completion of the Veda," is naturally ascribed to Vyasa, the mythic arranger of the Vedas, who is said to be identical with Badarayana the reputed author of the Brahma- (or gariraka-) sutra, the authori tative, though highly obscure, summary of the system. The most
distinguished interpreter of these aphorisms is the famous Mala bar theologian ankara Acharya, who also commented on the principal Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita, and is said to have spent the greater part of his life in wandering all over India, as far as Kashmir, and engaging in disputations with teachers— whether of the aiva, or Vaishnava, or less orthodox persuasions —with the view of rooting out heresy and re-establishing the doctrine of the Upanishads. In ankara's philosophy the theory that the material world has no real existence, but is a mere illusion of the individual soul wrapt in ignorance,—that, there fore, it has only a practical or conventional (vyavaharika) but not a transcendental or true (pdramarthika) reality,—is strictly enforced. In accordance with this distinction, a higher (pard) and a lower (apara) form of knowledge is recognized; the former being concetned with the Brahman (n.), whilst the latter deals with the personal Brahma, the igvara, or lord and creator, who, however, is a mere illusory form of the divine spirit, resulting from ignorance of the human soul. To the question why the Supreme Self (or rather his fictitious development, the Highest Lord) should have sent forth this phantasmagory this great thinker (with the author of the Sutras) can return no better answer than that it must have been done for sport (lila), with out any special motive—since to ascribe such a motive to the Supreme Lord would be limiting his self-sufficiency—and that the process of creation has been going on from all eternity. Sankara's gdriraka-mimamsa-bhashya has given rise to a large number of exegetic treatises, of which Vachaspati-migra's expo sition, entitled Bhamati, is the most esteemed. Of numerous other commentaries on the Brahma-sutras, the gri-bhashya, by Ramanuja, the founder of the ri-Vaishnava sect, is the most noteworthy. This religious teacher, who flourished in the first half of the 12th century, caused a schism in the Vedanta school. Instead of adhering to ankara's orthodox advaita, or non duality, doctrine, he interpreted the obscure Sutras in accord ance with his theory of viscishtcidvaita, i.e., non-duality of the (two) distinct (principles), or, as it is more commonly explained, non-duality of that which is qualified (by attributes). According to this theory the Brahman is neither devoid of form and quality, nor is it all things ; but it is endowed with all good qualities, and matter is distinct from it; whilst bodies consist of souls (chit) and matter (achit) ; and God is the soul. On the religious side, Ramanuja adopts the tenets of the ancient Vishnuite Paricharatra sect, and, identifying the Brahman with Vishnu, combines with his theory the ordinary Vaishnava doctrine of periodical descents (avatara) of the deity, in various forms, for the benefit of crea tures; and allowing considerable play to the doctrine that faith (bhakti), not knowledge (vidya), is the means of final emancipa tion. This phase of Indian religious belief, which has attached itself to the Vedanta theory more closely than to any other, makes its appearance very prominently in the Bhagavadgita, the episode of the Mahabharata, already referred to—where, how ever, it attaches itself to Sankhya-yoga rather than to Vedanta tenets—and is even more fully developed in some of the Puranas, especially the Bhagavata. Its highest phase of development this doctrine probably reached in the Vaishnava sect founded, towards the end of the zS,th century, by Chaitanya, whose fol lowers subsequently grafted the Vedanta speculations on his doctrine. In opposition both to ankara's theory of absolute unity, and to Ramanuja's doctrine of qualified unity—though leaning more towards the latter—Madhava Acharya, or Marna prajna (A.D. 1118-1198), started his dvaita, or duality doctrine, according to whith there is a difference between God and the human soul (jiva), as well as between God and nature; whilst the individual souls, which are innumerable, eternal, and inde structible, are likewise different from one another; but, though distinct, are yet united with God, like tree and sap, in an indis soluble union. This doctrine also identifies the Brahman with Vishnu, by the side of whom, likewise infinite, is the goddess Lakshmi, as Prakriti (nature), from whom inert matter (jada) derives its energy. Here also bhakti, devotion to God, is the saving element. A popular summary of the Vedanta doctrine is the V edanta-sdra by Sadananda, which has been frequently printed and translated.