WARS. The Greek insurrection in 1824 gave England, France and Russia occasion to press demands upon Turkey, which the Porte refused to accede to, rejecting be sides the London Protocol of July 1827. Hostilities broke out in Oct. 1827, when the allied fleet under Admiral Codrington de feated the Turkish flotilla off Navarino. This victory greatly facilitated the eventual Russian operations against Turkey as the Russian army supported and provisioned by her own fleet could march along the coast by the shortest road to Adrianople and thence towards the Turkish capital.
Towards the end of April 1828 the Russian army consisting of three army corps stood between the Pruth-Dniester 69,000 strong, war having been formally declared on April 28. Turkey, whose army was being reorganized at the time, decided to resist the enemy in the quadrilateral, Ruschuk, Silistria, Varna and Shumla, for which purpose she assembled about 8o,000 men. One corps of the invading army invested Braila, which was cap tured on June 17; another Russian corps crossed at the mouth of the Danube on June I1, while a third drove back the garrisons of Ruschuk and Widdin into these fortresses from which they had emerged. The first two Russian corps now advanced on Shumen but finding the Turks to be stronger than they supposed, they fell back on Yenibazar. A Russian force was thrown forward towards Varna but only on the arrival of the Russian guard corps could the idea be entertained of investing it. The siege began on Sept. 10 and a month later Varna surrendered. The Russians owing to numerical weakness retired into winter quarters in Moldavia and Wallachia, leaving two corps in the vicinity of Varna, Pravodi and Bazardjik. The fortress of Silistria was still in Turkish hands and it now became on the resumption of hostili ties the principal Russian objective. Sizopol at the entrance to the harbour of Burgas was captured providing the Russians with a base for their operations south of the Danube. Silistria being invested fell on June 29. Meanwhile Reschid Pasha advanced from Shumla against Pravodi hoping to recapture Varna but was beaten off. General Diebitch, who had replaced Wittgenstein as Russian commander-in-chief, defeated Reschid Pasha at Tcher kovna on June 11. Diebitch now decided to advance south of the Balkans. Reschid attempted to hinder his march but was van quished at Sliven on Aug. 12. Adrianople was entered Aug. 20, but as Diebitch had only 15,00o men and pestilence was ravaging his ranks he deemed it wiser to conclude a treaty in September before Turkey became aware of the state of his army. Success crowned the Russian arms in Asia, Paskevitch gaining two im portant victories on June I and 2 at Erivan, his advance coming to a close by terms of the treaty arranged in Europe. A conference held in London proclaimed the independence of Greece, Russia receiving the islands at the mouth of the Danube, while Moldavia and Wallachia were to be no longer provinces of Turkey, but only under her protectorate.
The War of 1877-78.—The oppression of the Christian sub jects of the Sultan had made hostilities in 1877 between Turkey and Russia inevitable. After the Crimean War Turkey promised to grant reforms, thereby bettering the treatment of the Christian population, but the following years brought no material change.
In 1875 an insurrection broke out in Hercegovina and Monte negro, to be followed by Serbia openly taking up arms against Turkey. Russia, whose sympathies by reason of race and religion, were wholly on the side of the Slays, could not remain a silent onlooker of the events in the Balkans. Russian volunteers flocked in great numbers to join the Serbians and General Chernyaeff was entrusted with their command. Disparity of numbers how ever, went against the Serbians, the Turks gaining several suc cesses, which culminated in their victory at Djunis on Oct. ??, 1876. Alexander II. then stepped forward and insisted on hostili ties ceasing, to which Turkey hurriedly assented. A conference now assembled at Constantinople, but after months of delibera tion, it failed to come to an agreement, Turkey taking advantage of the divergent views of the Great Powers. She became as time progressed less willing to make concessions. To prepare for all eventualities and to bring greater weight to her influence at the conference Russia mobilized six army corps in Nov. They con sisted of the VII., VIII., IX., X., XI. and XII., corps and were concentrated on the southern frontier, on the Rumanian borders. Mobilization arrangements were not worked effectively nor the deployment of the forces. It must be borne in mind that con scription had been only enforced in Jan. 1874 and there was con sequently a lack of well trained officers and reserves. Another great obstacle that hindered Russia from dealing a quick blow at Turkey was the lack of a fleet in the Black sea, though this restriction was removed in 1871. Knowing the unprepared state of the forces several experts, among them General Todleben, the world famous defender of Sevastopol in the Crimean War (q.v.), were opposed to Russia undertaking an active campaign, but the Pan-Slav movement which was general in Russia, forced the Tsar to declare war April 24. Having underrated her foe Russia began hostilities with insufficient forces, sending 257,000 men into Ru mania and 70,00o each to the Caucasus and to the Austrian frontier. The Grand Duke Nicholas, the Tsar's brother, was in command of the forces and orders were instantly given to cross the Rumanian frontier; this state having proclaimed her inde pendence of Turkey afforded every facility to the Russians to move their army to the Danube. Early in June the Russian army was assembled around Bucharest; it consisted of the VIII., IX. and XII. corps, with detachments thrown forward to the Danube. The XI. corps was guarding the region from the river Argis to the river Yalomniza, further east towards the Pruth stood the XIV. corps while the XIII. was expected by the middle of June and the IV. a month later. The Russian army was armed indifferently and tactically was ill trained, which was due to the men being unused to handling their new weapons. The Russian forces in the middle of June which intended crossing the Danube numbered 257,000 men, but one must deduct those guarding the railway line through Rumania.