Kings

KING'S). It was kept by a clerk of the chamber and naturally dis appeared when the estate was given up. Yet another secret seal made an appearance in i q67. but it was little used (19oo) ; C. V. Langlois, St. Louis-Philippe le Bel, Les derniers capetains directs 1226-1328 (19o1) ; W. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (19o7–o9) ; E. Deprez, Etudes de diplomatique anglaise, 1272-1485 (1908) L. Perrichet, La grande chancellarie de France des origines d ; T. F. Tout, Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England (vols. I.–II., 1920, III.-.Iv., 1928, V. [and last] in preparation; bibl.) ; F. M. G. Evans, The Principal Secretary of State (1923) ; Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, The Great Seal of England (1926). (D. M. B.) Other Devices.—Amongst the seals of officers of state may be noted those of the admirals, who used for device a ship, generally with their personal arms on the sail. A bishop was rep resented on his seal of dignity in mass vestments. Later his figure was placed under a canopy, which at first simple, gradually grew in splendour, eventually becoming the principal element in the design. On seals ad causas and secrets saints take the chief place, the bishop being shown kneeling below. After the Reformation the design naturally changed, scenes from the Old Testament being common, and by the middle of the 17th century a shield of arms had generally become the only device.

On the seals of cathedrals and religious houses there is often a conventional view of the church sometimes with the patron saint, or the patron saint alone. The universities show the chan cellor and masters in convocation, while the colleges have patron saints and founders, a religious emblem or a shield of arms. In foreign universities the faculties and nations generally had seals, a common design being a doctor or master lecturing. On seals of towns a representation of the town itself, sometimes with the patron saint, is frequent; or the patron saint alone or some promi nent building might be used, while in France it is not uncommon to find the heads of the civic dignitaries.

At first the shield appears alone, but delicate tracery panels are later introduced to contain it. Wyverns or other animals are often placed round the shield, badges were frequently added, while the shield was sometimes shown hanging from a tree or held by an angel or eagle. In addition to an heraldic seal the noble, like his

sovereign, often had an equestrian seal, on which he is occasion ally shown in civil costume. Standing figures of ladies, often hold ing shields or a hawk, and in heraldic dress, are common down to the middle of the 14th century. Persons not entitled to bear arms had usually to be content with such objects as stars, flowers, beasts and birds, while a common device for the lesser clergy was the Agnus Del, Virgin and Child or other saints.

Papal bullae in design are sui generis. On the obverse are the heads of SS. Peter and Paul, and on the reverse the pope's name. Archaic from the beginning, they have so continued, in spite of attempts by Paul II. to alter and by Julius II. to improve the design.

Evolution of the Art.

At first crude and ill designed, an im provement rapidly set in and by the middle of the 13th century the art reached its highest point, the seal of Merton priory, Sur rey, made in 1241, being probably the finest ever cut. At this level the art remained for upwards of a century. By the begin ning of the 14th century the whole surface had become covered with ornament, and elaborate canopies crowded with tabernacle work are a common feature, so much so that the figure became subordinate. This over-elaboration, which imples no failure in technique but the contrary, finally led to the decline of the art.

The use of seals for the purposes of identification and orna ment has existed in China since earliest times and was emulated in Korea and in Japan from the inception of her imitation of Chi nese usages and manners. The word seal may be applied with equal propriety to the stamped impression and the object with which the impression is made. These impressions appear in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, the more common shapes being square, oblong, elliptical, round and gourd-shaped. In size they run from the huge imperial seals (sometimes as large as 4;" by 6r) to miniature seals which are often as small as in. square or in diameter. The ink used is usually a vermilion red, but black and purple are also employed.