Syria

South east of the mountains lie steppe and desert with oases such as the saltpan of Jebeil in the north, Kinnesrin and Aleppo, and Sham or Damascus fed by streams from HermOn of which Barada (anc. Abana) and Acwaj (anc. Pharpar) are the chief. Farther south occur some large masses of tertiary lava of which El Leja (also called Trachon) is the chief. Marine Pliocene beds have been found at El Forklus in the Palmyra desert. To the west of the mountain ridges lies the coastal plain. It is very narrow in the south from Tyre (Es Sur) to Tripoli, but widens out in the north especially near the river mouths. The coast (with the exception of the delta sections) shows marked north to south lines. These seem related structurally to the great north to south faults among the mountains.

The few indentations of the coastline limit the natural harbours, but where local circumstances have been favourable (e.g., a small island off Tyre and a small promontory near Beirut) some of the great harbours of the ancient world grew up. On this coast, it was said, the east and west met. Thus behind the mountains were the great bazaars—Damascus, Antioch, Awa and Aleppo—and on the coast the great ports, Tyre, Sidon, Acre, Beirut, Tripoli, Latakia and Alexandretta.

Climate.—The coastal strip of Syria has the best climate, because it is exposed to the moderating influences of the Medi terranean. The westerly rain-bearing cyclonic storms bring rain in winter to this part which has the heaviest fall in the south (Beirut 21.66 in. mean annual rainfall). Among the mountains of Lebanon the rainfall often exceeds 4o inches. The coast lands are also less affected by intense heat, owing to the sea influences, the mean annual temperature at Beirut being 68°. Where the cooling sea winds are shut off by the mountains, as at Aleppo and Damascus, the heat is intense. In winter the dense, cold, dry anticyclonic influences of central Asia spread over the plateau regions of Syria, giving frost and snow among the mountains; but this is never experienced along the coast. The interior steppe gives great contrasts of temperature both seasonal and diurnal, although the rainfall is always slight. In early summer a hot, dry wind, often bringing large quantities of sand, blows out from the desert and often damages the vegetation of the coastal regions. These general climatic conditions mean that Syria, except the narrow littoral strip, which was the ancient Phoenicia, and the small deltas, such as that of Latakia (Laodicea), is not highly productive without irrigation. The larger rivers (e.g., the Orontes) flow in deep beds and are thus of little use for irriga tion purposes. Mid-Syria, except for the lacustrine oases, is a region mainly occupied by pastures and yielding only thin cereal crops. The plains south and south-east of Aleppo have a little spring rain giving a good spring pasture which has attracted the nomads from farther south. Below the latitude of Raqqa-Homs thin steppe begins, and quickly degenerates into desert broken only by a chain of poor oases, south of a low ridge running from Anti-Lebanon to Euphrates. Of these the principal are Karietein

and Tadmor (Palmyra), through which passes the trade from Damascus to the east.

Flora and Fauna.

Two distinct floral regions meet in Syria, that of the Mediterranean and that of the west Asiatic steppe-land. The first, to be seen on the coast and the western slopes of the highlands, is characterized by evergreen shrubs, and by quickly-flowering spring plants. On the lowest levels the southern forms, the Ficus sycomorus and the date-palm, appear, and increase in the direction of Egypt. (See LEBANON and PALESTINE.) The steppe region, whose flora appears east of the western ridge, is distinguished by the variety of its species, the dry and thorny character of its shrubs, and great poverty in trees. Among cultivated trees, the olive is at home throughout Syria, except on the steppe : the mulberry is planted extensively in the lower Lebanon; and all sorts of fruit-trees flourish in irrigated gardens, especially on the Phoenician coast, in the oases of Damascus, and in the Bukata. The lower western slopes of the coast range are largely devoted to tobacco growing. In the northern inland hill-country liquorice grows wild. The mammals of Syria include the isabelline bear, badger, pole-cat, ermine, roe and fallow deer, wild ass, Syrian squirrel, pouched marmoset, gerbill and leopard.

Population and Religion.

The population (1929) of the major divisions of Syria was as follows :—Syria 1,696,638, Leb anon 862,618, 'Alawis 286,92o and Jebel ed DrUz 51,780. Phoe nicia and the Lebanon districts in the south coastal region have the densest population, while the oases of Damascus and Aleppo, the Orontes valley and parts of the extreme north-west are well peopled. The bulk of the population shows Semitic features. The Aramaean element is fundamental though it has a large admix ture of immigrant Arabian blood which is constantly being rein forced. In the extreme north the highlands are almost entirely held by Kurds who entered from beyond Euphrates in compara tively recent times. Kurds live upon the Commagenian plains, as also in the northern trans-Euphratean plains. Among them in the Taurus and Amanus, and outnumbering them on the plains, formerly lived Armenian communities, many of whom have be come refugees in mandated Syria. These are found as far south as the plain of Antioch and the basin of the Sajur. To the north of Aleppo and Antioch live remnants of pre-Aramaean stocks, mixed with many half-settled and settled Turkomans (Yuruks, Avshars, etc.), who came in before the Mohammedan era, and here and there colonies of imported Circassians. Mid-Syria shows a medley of populations, in large part alien, for which see DRUSES ; MARONITES ; and LEBANON. In the Phoenician coast towns are many Greeks. In the steppe-land are numbers of true Arabs, mostly belonging to the great Anazeh family, which has been coming northwards from Nejd in detachments since the 13th century. Turks and various Europeans complete the medley.