Something about the ancient political and geographical rela tions of Syria can be gleaned from Egyptian sources, especially in connection with the campaigns of Tuthmosis (Thothmes) III.
(see EGYPT, History), in western Asia and the administration of Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. (the Tell el-Amarna Letters). The Egyptians designated their eastern neighbours collectively as 'Amu. Syria up to and beyond the Euphrates is called more precisely Sahi and is regarded as consisting of the following parts : (I) Rutenu, practically the same as Palestine (occasionally Palestine with Coelesyria is called Upper Rutenu, as distinguished from Lower Rutenu extending to the Euphrates) ; the land of the Kheta (sometimes reckoned as belonging to Rutenu with Kadesh on the Orontes as its capital in the Ramesside period) ; (3) Naharina, the land on both sides of the Euphrates (extending, strictly speaking, beyond the Syrian limits). The Canaanites in general are called Kharu. From these lands the Egyptian kings often derived rich booty, so that in those days Syria must have been civilized and prosperous. Moreover, we possess enumera tions of towns which can be readily identified, such as Aleppo, Kadesh, Sidon, as well as many in Palestine. The Tell el-Amarna Letters (15th century B.c.) show Syria held in part by Egyptian viceroys, who are much preoccupied with southward movements due to pressure of Amorite peoples, and of the Mitanni and the Kheta, whose non-Semitic blood was mingled with that of the Aramaeans even in Palestine. On the latter in Syria, see HIT TITES. It need only be said here that this people bulked most largely in the relations of Egypt with Syria from the 16th to the 14th centuries. During the reign of Rameses II. it was centred on the upper Orontes (Kadesh). Later we find Kheta focused farther north, on the middle Euphrates (Carchemish), and more or less cut off from Egypt by the Hebrew State. They remained, however, the most powerful of the Syrian elements until the westward extension of Assyria about 105o B.C., under Tiglath Pileser I. Late in the 8th century Sargon III. took Carchemish and ended Hittite power.
With the fall of the Kheta the Aramaeans were the people who held the most important towns of Syria, gradually advancing until at last they occupied the whole country. Of the Aramaean stocks named in Gen. x. 23, xxii. 21 et seq. very little is known. A great
part was played in the history of Israel by the State of Aram Dammesek: i.e., the territory of the ancient city of Damascus; it was brought into subjection for a short time under David. The main object of the century-long dispute between the two king doms was the possession of the land to the east of the Jordan (Hauran, and especially Gilead). Hamath in the valley of the Orontes was from an early period one of the most important places in Syria; according to the Bible, its original inhabitants were Canaanites. In 733 B.C. Tiglath-Pileser II. compassed the overthrow of the kingdom of Damascus; he also took Arpad (Tel Arfad), an important place three hours to the north of Aleppo. Hamath was taken by Sargon in 72o. Henceforward the States of Syria were subject to one or other of the great world-empires, and were still in dispute between Babylonia and Egypt as late as Necho. Thereafter the Mesopotamian powers prevailed, even if in some cases a certain degree of independence was preserved ; e.g., by the Phoenician cities. These, however, in spite of more than one revolt, continued to supply fleets to the Persians down to the time of the Macedonian invasion (332 B.c.).
The foundation of numerous Greek cities after Alexander's time was of great importance for Syria (see e.g., ANTIOCH). The Graeco-Syrian civilization extended far to the south down both sides of Jordan, and, but for the Maccabaean revival, would have absorbed the Jews. The Seleucidae had severe struggles with the Ptolemies for the possession of the southern part of Syria (see MACEDONIAN EMPIRE).
After having been reckoned from 83 to 69 B.C. among the dominions of Tigranes, king of Armenia, the country was con quered for the Romans by Pompey (64-63 B.c.). It is of special interest to note that the kingdom of the Arab Nabataeans was able to keep its hold for a considerable period on the north as far as Damascus. The country soon became one of the most im portant provinces of the Roman Empire ; its proconsulship was from the first regarded as desirable, and this eminence became still more marked afterwards. Antioch, adorned with many sump tuous buildings, as the chief town of the provinces of Asia, be came in point of size the third city of the empire. The high de gree of civilization then prevailing in the country is proved by its architectural remains.