TAOISM. The term Taoism has two meanings: (I) the philosophical system attributed to Lao Tzu (b. 604 B.c.) and Chuang Tzu (b. 33o B.c.) ; (2) the popular religion of the Chinese.
The term Tao origi nally meant the revolution or the way of the heavens about the earth. This movement of the heavens was regarded as the cause of the phenomena on earth. The Tao was located about the celestial pole, which was considered to be the seat of power because all revolves about it. In the course of time this con crete expression became abstract, and the Tao was viewed as the universal cosmic energy behind the visible order of nature.
This cosmic energy regarded as beihg is impersonal, omnipresent and eternal; viewed as becoming it works spontane ously, orderly, unselfishly and continu ously for the highest good of all beings.
The Tao produced the yin and the yang, the negative and the positive, female and male principles of nature. These by their interaction brought forth heaven and earth. Heaven and earth gave birth to all beings. The human order is the product of the eternal energy.
Taoism has usually been regarded as a mystic religion, but it was also an economic and political philoso phy. It advocated frugality, simplicity and the joys of the peasant life in contact with the soil. It opposed the educational pro gramme of the Confucianists, and advocated the theory that the people should be kept in innocence (not in ignorance). The Taoist philosophy is responsible for that remarkable trait of the Chinese, namely, their contentment in situations which offer a minimum of comfort and their prizing of culture above possession.
In politics Taoism opposed a highly cen tralized government and favoured the maximum autonomy for the people. Lao Tzu and his successors promoted the small vil lage state which enjoyed full autonomy and lived in harmony with its neighbours. All forms of bondage and legal restraints were opposed. Non-resistance was exalted and militarism was condemned.
The ethics of Confucianism met with the strongest opposition on the part of the Taoists. Such virtues as love, justice, reverence, wisdom and sincerity were regarded as the first steps departing from the harmony of the simple life in the Tao, and producing the distracting contraries which marred the purity of life.
The Taoists were mystics, but they were practical mystics, who hoped to realise the best social order through a harmonious rela tionship with the Tao. Their ideal was "this worldly." Their mys ticism had three stages: (I) the purgation, casting out selfishness and self-seeking; (2) union with the Tao, by which the indi vidual lost his individuality with the distraction of the contraries; (3) power, which enabled the individual merged with the Tao to escape the limitations of time and space.
Taoism as a religion is inherent in Taoism as a philosophy. The early mystics practised breathing and abstaining from food, and sought longevity and a future life in the Taoist paradise. The religious aspect did not become prom inent, however, until the Han dynasty ( 206 B.C–A.D. 221), when the Taoists occupied themselves in compounding the elixir of life and in making journeys to the Isles of the Immortals. They also developed several sects which practised exorcism and fortune telling and exercised considerable political power.
The rise of Taoism as a church is attributed to Chang Tao-Ling (b. A.D. 34), who developed a high degree of magic power which he transmitted to his heirs, together with the political prestige which reputation for such power brought. These took part in a successful rebellion in the latter part of the 2nd century, and established a state in Szechuan based on Taoist principles. The descendants of Chang Tao-Ling were recognized by the Govern ment and in 1016 were given a fief at Lung Hu Shan in Kiangsi. Their function consisted of a general oversight of the Taoist priests and monks and the rule over the world of the gods. The system developed a hierarchy among the gods which corresponded to that of the government of China. At the head was Yil Huang Shangti, the Pearly emperor, who presided over an elaborate pantheon.
Through contact with Buddhism in the first six centuries of our era the Taoists appropriated the Buddhist world view, adopted the monastic system and imitated the Bud dhist pantheon. Lao Tzu was deified and was associated with Pan Ku and Yil Huang Shangti in the Taoist Trinity patterned after the Three Jewels of Buddhism. Present-day Taoism is a conglomeration of animism, polytheism and magic.