6. THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The National Constitution.-The Constitution of the United States, framed in 1787 and adopted in 1789, is a brief and well drafted document. Its influence has been felt not only in the United States, but in the Federal systems of Switzerland, Argen tina, Brazil, Canada and Australia. The Constitution outlines the organization of the three departments of the National Government, defines the powers of that Government, and the relationship be tween the Nation and the States. It provides a method of amend ment, and has been twenty-one times amended since its adoption. The first ten amendments, adopted in 1791, were the direct results of criticisms of the Constitution at the time of its adoption, and may almost be regarded as parts of the original document. Of the other amendments, the Eleventh, adopted in 1798, overcame a decision of the United States Supreme Court to the effect that a State might be sued by a citizen of another State. The Twelfth Amendment, adopted in 1804, corrected a defect in the original Constitution as to the method of choosing the president and vice president. The Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were the immediate outcome of the Civil War. The Thirteenth abolished slavery, the Fifteenth forbad denial of the right to vote "on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude." The Fourteenth Amendment, regarded for a while by the courts as limiting itself to the protection of the freed slaves, has become, by expansion of the terms "due process of law" and "equal pro tection of the laws," the means through which the United States Supreme Court determines the policy of State enactments in the field of social legislation. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 gave Congress an effective power to levy a Federal income tax. Popular election of United States senators under the Seventeenth Amend ment, adopted in 1913, has somewhat reduced the importance of the State, as did the Eighteenth (1919) transferring the liquor problem to the National Government. The Nineteenth Amend ment (1920) nationalized women's suffrage. The Twentieth Amendment altered the time of beginning of terms of president, vice-president, senators and representatives; changed the time for sessions of Congress ; and provided for certain contingencies which may arise as the result of the death or failure to qualify of a president-elect. The Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eight
eenth Amendment and restored the control of intoxicating liquors to the States. On the whole, the process of amendment, while to some extent enlarging Federal powers, has been less influential in this direction than the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Congress.—Legislative power in the National system is exer cised by a Congress composed of two houses. The two houses have grown—the Senate from 26 to 96 members, and the House of Representatives from 65 to 435 members.
United States senators are elected for six-year terms, and terms are so arranged that one-third of its members retire each two years. Since 1913 the elections in each State are by popular vote of the whole State, except that temporary appointments to fill vacancies are per mitted. Members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years, and the whole membership changes each two years. Each State is required to be divided into districts equal to the number of mem bers it has in the House of Representatives ; but if the number of representatives apportioned to a State is increased, and the State legislature makes no reapportionment of districts within the State, then the additional representative or representatives are elected by the State at large; if the number of representatives apportioned to a State is decreased, and the State legislature makes no reapportionment of districts within the State, then all representatives are elected by the State at large. Each member of the House of Representatives is re quired to be a resident of the State from which he is chosen ; political and sectional interests make it practically impossible for a person to be elected for a district within the State in which he does not reside. The result is that an able and experienced person ceases to be a mem ber of Congress if he fails of re-election by his district. In addition to the elected members, territorial delegates sit without vote in the House of Representatives-one each from Alaska and Hawaii. One resident commissioner each from Puerto Rico and the Philippine islands also has a seat in the House.