UNIVERSITIES OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY The Royal university of Uppsala, whose foundation as a stadium generale was sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV. in 1477, was roused to new life in the 17th century by the introduction of the Cartesian philosophy. In the 18th century lectures began to be delivered in Swedish ; while the mediaeval divi sion of the students into "nations" continued, as at Lund, until the second quarter of the i9th. Gothenburg, on the other hand, with its society of science and literature, dating from 1841, has represented rather a popular institution, existing independently of the State, maintained chiefly by private contributions, and gov erned by a board called the Curatorium. For a long time it was not empowered to hold examinations. Stockholm (1878) still remains a gymnasium, but its curriculum is, to a certain extent, supple mented by its connection with Uppsala, from which it is little more than 4o m. distant by rail. The University of Christiania
(now Oslo), in Norway, founded in 1811, and the Swedish univer sities are strongly Lutheran in character; and all alike are closely associated with the ecclesiastical institutions of the Scandinavian kingdoms. The same observation applies to Copenhagen—where the labours of Rask and Madvig raised the reputation of the university for learning.
The royal university of Kiel was founded in 1665 by Duke Christian Albrecht of Holstein (who himself assumed the office of rector), with faculties of theology, law, medicine and phil osophy. After the incorporation of Schleswig-Holstein with the kingdom of Prussia it made a marked advance. In the latter half of the last century it became famous as a school of chemistry, physiology and anatomy, while its library, in 1904, exceeded 250,000 volumes.