The controversy with the Karaites stimulated the neglected study of the Bible amongst the rabbinitic Jews. The ablest apologete of their views was the Gaon Saadjah (892-942), who wrote the first systematic work on philosophy of religion, called "Science and Religion." From that timc on the Babylonian schools declined. In to4o the last Gaon was put to death and no successor appointed.
Babylonian Jews settled in great numbers in northern Africa. Isaac Alfasi, of Fcz 0013 '103), emigrated to Spain and founded a school in Lucena. However, previous to his time there was in Cordova a famous seat of learning.
Hasdai ibn Shaprut. who occupied a high posi tion at the court of Ahderrahman III 012-960, was a patron of Jewish literature. Amongst those whom lie supported are thc first Jewish gramma rians, Dunash bcn Lahrat and Mcnahcm hen Sa riik. A position similar to that of Hasdai was occupied by Samuel ibn Nagrela at the court of the Moorish Calif Habus in Granada.. Samuel was not only a patron of Jewish literature, but also a scholar of considerable attainments. He supported one of the best of all New-Hebrew poets, Salorno ibn Gebirol, who also is the author of the philosophical work, "Fountain of Life," which exercised a great influence on the philoso phy of Thomas Aquinas. As author of a popular work on religious ethics, "The Duties of the Heart," we have to mention Bahja ibn Pakuda.
In France and Germany the Jewish population increased under Charlemagne (76S-814) and his successors. The embassy which Charlemagne sent to Harun Al-Rashid numbered a Jew among its members. With the progress of the German arms the Jews moved eastward to Austria, Bo hemia, and Poland.
The literary activity of the Jews in Germany and France is limited to liturgical poetry and to talmudical codes and commentaries. In regard to the latter we mention R. Gershom, called "The Light of the Diaspora," who lived in Mayence (A. C. 96o-iozo) and who is famous for making monogamy, which up to his time was only a practice, a binding law.
The twelfth century shows the highest devel opment of spiritual life in Judaism. In Spain we have the greatest of all medieval Jewish poets, Jehuda Halevi (io8o-1140, who is also famous for his Kusari, an apology for Judaism in the form of a dialogue between the Khan of the Chazars and the rabbi who had converted him.
Abraham ibn Esra, also a native of Spain (io92 1167), had in the school of the Karaites, acquired a critical spirit, which he used not only in dissect ing and very frequently ridiculing rabbinical in terpretations of the Bible, but in criticising the Bible itself. The brightest star in the Jew ish literature of the age is Moses Alaimoni des (1135-12o4). Of his numerous works we shall quote only two: Mishneh Thorah, a code of the Jewish law, comprising dogma, ritual, civil, criminal and political law, and Morch Nebuchim, The Guide of the PerPlexed, a philosophical apol ogy for Judaism based on Aristotle. His argu ments were partly made use of by Thomas of Aquino and Albertus Magnus.
From the thirteenth century on we notice a decline in the intellectual life of Judaism. This decline is typified by a fierce opposition to Alai monides' philosophy. The liberals were repre sented by David Kimehi (ii7o-1235), the best known exegete and grammarian of the Middle Ages, while the orthodox party was represented by Solomon ibn Adret (123o-131o), rabbi of Bar celona. He, like the German rabbis, stood for the infallibility of the Talmud. Amongst the Ger man rabbis the highest authority was Meir of Rothenburg (1220-1293), who died in prison be cause on his advice the Germans refused to pay the high ransom for the extortion of which King Rudolph had imprisoned him.
More spiritual freedom existed in Italy. where we find the poet Immanuel of Rome (12743-1340), who wrote a Hebrew sequel to Dante's Divine Commedia. A very great influence was exercised by the Jews as translators from Arabic into Latin. Persecutions on religious grounds, stimu lated hy Jewish converts to Christianity such as Nicholas Donin (A. C. 124o), Pablo Christiani (126o), Alfonso of Valladolid (i3oo). Geronimo da Santa Fe. and Paulus of Burgos (1.393-144o), aroused Messianic hopes, based on Kabalistic prophecies. Abraham Abulafia (iaSo) played the 1.51* of a Messiah in Sicily and Moses ben Nah man (1zoo-12.7o) gave considerable space to Kabala in his commentary on the Pentateuch.