The misery which Jews still endured, even in places where their lives and property were not in constant danger, fomented the Messianic hope, and in 1666 Sabbathai Zebi, a native of Smyrna, an nounced himself as the Messiah, and succeeded in securing followers all over Europe until, when the Sultan interfered and asked him to prove his Mes sianic mission by a miracle, he was converted to Islam. This ridiculous result of the Messianic movement showed its effect in a growing aver sion to Kabala. At the same time we see some descendants of those who suffered the most cruel martyrdom for their faith break away from Judaism and all positive religions. Both Baruch Spinozas (1632-1677) and Uriel Acosta (1594 1640) were members of the Portuguese Congrega tion of Amsterdam.
The persecutionS. although not as fierce as those of the fifteenth century, continued. In 167o the Emperor, Leopold I, expelled the Jews from Vien na for no other reason than because his wife. a Spanish princess, desired it for the glory of God. The Marannos in Spain and Portugal were still the victims of the Inquisition. In 1680 Charles H. in order to duly celebrate his.nuptials with a French princess, ordered a great auto da fe to be held, at which eighteen Jews were burned to death, while a great many others were sentenced to im prisomnent and to disgracing acts of penitence.
In consequence of the Messianic movement un der Sabbathai Zebi a mYstic sect arose which had its followers in the East, who called them selves Hassidim. The Maranno Michael Cardoso (1622-17°6) ; the Italian Mose Hajim Luzzatto 0707-1747), one of the best poets of the NeW Hebrew literature, and finally Israel Besht (1696 176o), an ignorant Polish coachman, developed this doctrine, While they nover severed their connection with the whole body of Judaism, their doctrinal recognition of theosophy and their belief in miracle workers formed a decided difference between them and the orthodox followers of rab binical Judaism. The crisis was reached when, in a bitter and protracted controversy between the Rabbi of Altona, Jonathan Eibeschitz (169o-1764) and the celebrated author, Jacob Emden (1696 '776), all belief in Kabala was branded as crypto Sabbathaism. During this controversy Emden had the boldness to declare the Zohar, the canon ical book of the Kabalists, a partial forgery.
This critical view had further consequences. It produced a spiritual independence, which found its most successful exponent in Moses Menuels sohn 0729-1786), who, a consistent deist himself, advocated an amalgamation of the Jews with their surroundings by a general education, but he care fully refrained from advocating any innovations in the religious life. He translated parts of the Bible into pure German (1783), edited the. first Hebrew magazine (1784) and was instrumental in the foundation of a Jewish free school. He also advocated the full right of citizenship for the Jews. This became an accomplished fact during the French revolution 0791), and was imitated by other states which, during the revolutionary pe riod, were under French influence, but after the Vienna Congress (1815) a general reaction set in.
Meantime the Jews began to consider the neces sity for changing their ritual and revising their dogma. In regard to the latter, the most impor tant move was the declaration against the belief in a personal Messiah. In their ritual the substi tution of the vernacular for the Hebrew in some parts of their Prayer Book was the decisive step taken. These reforms were first introduced in
the "Tempel" of Hamburg 0817). At the same time rabbinical literature became the object of scientific treatment, and the exclusive dominion of scholasticism was broken. In this respect the merit of the initiation belongs to Leopold Zunz (1794-1886). With him we shall mention : S. L. Rappoport (1791-1867), S. D. Luzzatto (1800 1865), Zacharias Frankel (18o1-1875), the repre sentatives of modern conservatism, while Abra ham Geiger 0810-1874) represents the liberal the ology, within which Samuel Holdheim (18o6 186o) and David Einhorn (1809-1879) represent the radical wing. The strictest orthodoxy is rep resented by Samson R. Hirsch (18°8-1888). Of other leading scholars we mention Hirsch Graetz 0817-1890, Leopold Loew (1811-1875) and M. Steinschneider (born 1816).
The present religious condition of the Jews may be described thus: In Asia, northern Af rica and Turkey we find strict medievalism, serv ile practice of ritual laws, superstitious fears of the rabbis, and uncritical acceptance of every thing ever taught by anybody in the name of. the Jewish religion. In Russia, Roumania and Galicia, strict talmudical orthodoxy is steadily losing ground, to make room for those religious views which are the rule amongst the Jews of western Europe, viz., a liberal attitude to the teachings and the practice of religion very much like that prevailing among the body of German Protest ants of the type represented by Harnack and other leading theologians. Their allegiance to Judaism, however, is strengthened by conscious ness of the fact that they will remain Jews no matter what their religious position and practice may become.
The revolution of 1848 brought political equal ity to the Jews all over western Europe, although it was not until 1858 that the first Tew, Lionel de Rothschild, was allowed to take his seat in the English Parliament. The medieval system, which leaves the Jew to the mercy of the mob in occa sional outbreaks of violence, reigns still in Mo locco and Persia. In Russia and Roumania the Jews are subjected to oppressive laws, such as existed in western Europe up to the eighteenth century. A similar state of affairs exists in Port ugal, while in Spain the law granting them lib erty of worship has never been carried into ef fect. In Germany, Austria, and France the anti Semitic movement for the last twenty years is trying to obtain a repeal of the laws granting the Jews political equality. This renewed hostility, together with the unbearable conditions of Rus sia, has of late produced the Zionistic movement, which aims to establish a Jewish state in Palestine as an asylum for the persecuted Jews all over the world.
Another notable feature of Jewish history in the nineteenth century is the participation of the Jews in all branches of art, science, literature and public life. France and Italy have had Jewish ministers, Cremieux, Fould, Raynal and Luzatti. All other civilized countries have had influential Jewish politicians. In music we may mention Meyerbeer, Halevy and Goldmark ; in literature, Heine, Boerne, Auerbach, Grace Aguilar, Gold smid (Denmark), Millaud (France), etc. Of great scientists the number is too great for this article to, do justice to them.
These facts certainly prove that the admission of the Jews to participation in public life has proven a benefit not only to them, but in no small degree a benefit to the highest interests of hu manity. G. D.