We have no certain information regarding the population of Persia. There can be no doubt that in antiquity, and even during the middle ages, while the irrigation works still fertilized great tracts of country, it supported a great population. A native esti mate, referred to by sir John Malcolm, fixed the modern population at 200.060,000 In the 17th c., the French traveler, Chardin, thought 40,000,000 not too high a figure. Recent travelers, however, reduced these sums to numbers valying from 15 to 8,000,000. Much surprise was accordingly expressed when Mr. R. Thomson, who had traveled in every province of Persia, and collected statistical information, made careful cal culation from the taxes collected, etc., and reported that the entire population did exceed 5,000.000, and was probably not over 4.000,000. His estimate has since been generally accepted as the most trustworthy we have. He divides the total roughly into 1,000,000 inhabitants of cities, 1,700,000 nomads, and 1,700,000 peasants and villa gers; and the following are his estimates of the population of the chief cities: Tabreez, 110,000; Teheran, 85.000: Meshid, 70,000; Ispahan, 60.000; Yeni, 40,000; Ferman, 30,000; Kermanshah, 30,000; Hamadan, 30,000. There can lie no doubt that the population has been long diminishing, a fact .attributable to misrule and extortion—neglect of the great irrigation works—and the frequent occurrence of families in a dry country where cultivation depends on an artificial supply of water.
The insecurity of property has prevented the improvement of land, the extension of trade, and public works of every kind. The roads are utterly neglected. The houses, those of the wealthiest people not excepted, appear contemptible, being generally built of earth or nand, and tire grouped, even in the towns, with little attention to uniformity or order. They scarcely ever exceed one story in height, and they are surrounded by high blank walls. The public buildings, such as moques, colleges, and caravansaries, are of similar appearance to the ordinary houses, and built of the same materials. The interiors, however, of the houses of the rich are sometimes perfect paradises of luxury and elegance; and however much dwellings constructed of mud may offend a European eye, it is questionable whether, with all its disadvantages, mud is not a better building material ]Lan wood or stone in a country possessing such a climate as Persia. The mis erable look of the towns is, however, greatly improved by the beauty of the gardens which surround them.
Jfansfaetnrcs and Trade. —The trade of Persia is comparatively of little importance. The silk is the great staple, and is produced in every province, but chiefly in those of the north. The failure of the crop since 1870 has, however, interfered very seriously with this branch of industry. Cotton and woolen fabrics, shawls, carpets, and felts are largely manufactured for use and export in Khorassan. Trade is carried on by caravans with the interior of Asia and the chief towns of Persia. These caravans exchange the products of Persia for muslin, leather, skins, nankeen, china, glass, hardware. gums, dye-stuffs, and spices. The greater pada the commerce of Persia centers at Tabreez. to which are conveyed all the products of e. Persia, Turkistan, Calm!, Beloochistan, and India. European roods are brought to Tabreez by Constantinople and Trebizond. While in recent times the great overland routes have been rendered insecure by the unsettled state of Turkistan and Afghanistan, the communication between Persia and foreign countries has been increased by the Caspian and the Persian gulf. On the for mer sea, iu 1873, there was a Russian fleet of schooners and screw steamers. Two or three of these vessels sailed weekly from Astrakhan with merchandizc for the Persian coast. There were three passenger steamers, one of which ran weekly to the southern shores of the Caspian, touching at Entzdi, Mashadisar, and Ashurada. In 1.9e Persian gulf the British India steam-navigation company had recently a regular line of fine steamers running fortnightly from Bombay to Bassora, and touching at Bender-Abbas and Bushire. The exports to India consist chiefly of horses, dried fruit and drugs; and
the imports from that country and Europe, of broadcloths, cotton goods, jewelry, arms, cutlery, watches, earthen, glass, and metal wares, etc. The whole foreign trade of Persia has been estimated roughly at—imports, £2,500,000; exports, £1,500,000. The trade by the gulf ports is rapidly increasing. The value of exports from Britain and Ireland to Persia in 1871 was in 1872, £23,811; and in 1876, £63,384. It is doubtful, however, how far the existing commerce of Persia will make the construction of railways a profitable speculation. Baron Renter, under a concession made to him by the shah, obtained power to construct railways front the Caspian to Teheran, and from Teheran to the Persian gulf ; but there is little expectation of this concession being suc cessful.
Government, Taxation, Education, government of Persia is a pure despotism, limited only by domestic intrigues, dread of private vengeance, and an occasional insur rection. The last-named is the principal check against unjust government on the tar:: of the monarch, while the former two operate as powerful restraints on his ministers. The monarch, who has the title of "shah" and " padishah," possesses absolute author ity over the lives and property of his subjects. His deputies, the governors of provinces and districts. possess similar authority over those under them; their actions are, how ever, liable to revision by the shah, who may summarily inflict any punishment upon them for real or alleged misgovernment. Oppression of the working and mercantile classes is almost a necessity of such a form of government. The central government consisted till lately of the or grand vizier, with various dependent officials. Now there is a ministry, nominally modeled after the cabinets of European states, of which the head is called president of the council. He is supported by the ministers of foreign affairs and of war, of justice, of public worship and of mines, of commerce, telegraphs, agriculture, industry and public works, the commander-in-chief, and the master of the ceremonies. The law, which in civil cases is administered by Mullahs (q.v.), in criminal cases by a state court, is founded on the Koran and on tradition. The punishments commonly inflicted are fines, flogging (the bastinado), and death, either by decapitation, stabbing, or torture. The beglerhegs, or governors of provinces, who are alWays chosen front the governing race, the Turkomans, and are generally of the blood royal', oppress to the utmost the poor Tajiks. They are seldom able, howeVer, to pro tect their provinces from the ravages of the predatory eylat hordes, who, though nomi nally subject to the shah, are governed by their own khans, and are really independent. The revenue is derived—(1.) From a tax on the gross produce of land, 20 per cent. is supposed to be the amount payable to the crown by the landholders. As a general rule, however, this amount is somewhat exceeded, and 25 per cent may be taken as the average assessment; (2.) Duties ou cattle and flocks—in case of goats, sheep, and cows, 8 per cant on value of wool and butter yielded; (3.) Customs dues; (4.) Capitation tax of 8d. on each male over 18; (5.) Rates levied on incomes of artisans and dealers of 20 per cent, and duties on provisions brought to market. In theory, these are the taxes authorized by the government, but Mr. R. Thomson states that in practice a frightful sytem of bribery and extortion prevails. The wealthy and influential escape the rapacity of the provincial governors, but as much as possible is taken from the hard-working peasants. He believes that the irregular exactions amount to a sum equal to the legal assessments, and that not a penny of the money so extorted is applied to public pur poses. Large sums are extorted from the Jews. The revenue in 1876 was about £1,643, 200, of which £1,240,000 were from the direct taxes.