Persia

Elementary education is very generally diffused among all classes. There are a large number of colleges where students are instructed in religion, and Persian and Arabian literature. Among the upper classe9 it is asserted that the Mohammedan religion is rapidly losing its hold, and that unbelief is widely prevalent.

religion Divisions, the earliest times down to the present century, Persia was divided into seven or eight great divisions; but about the time when it was attempted to introduce European civilization into the country, and discipline into the army, the country was anew divided into 25 provinces—viz., the three Caspian provinces of Gillian, Mazanderan, and Aiitrabad, in the north; Aze•bijan, Ardelan or Persian Kurdistan, Luristan, and Khuzistan, in the west; Pars, Laristan, and Kerman with Mogistan, in the south; while the great province of Irak-Ajemi in the center was divided into Khamsah, Kasbin, Teheran, Hamadan, Kum, and Ispithan; and that of Khorassan in the east, into Yezd, Tabus, Ghayn and Birjnn, Tnrshiz, Meshid, Damghan, Semnum, and the Dasht Beyad. or the Great Salt Desert. There are many interesting ruins of ancient, populous. and celebrated cities in Persia—for example, Persepolis (q.v.), Rhages or Rhe, Stalipur, Iztakhar, Tas, Merv, Shushan, Ramadan, etc.; and the monuments and inscriptions found at some of these places form a highly interesting study. See Army.—The standing army, according to the army list of 1875, consisted of 200,000 men, but the majority of these exist only on paper. The regular army is really com posed of about 30,000 infantry and 1000 artillery, while there arc about 10,000 irregular cavalry, a few thousand irreguhir infantry, and the guards. The officers in the Persian army are said to be ignorant and inefficient, but the soldiers are described as being obeaient, sober, intelligent, and capable of enduring great fatigue. The irregular cavalry, which forms the bravest portion of the Persian army, is equal to the Cossacks in the Russian army, and much superior to the Turkish ./Kt.tory.—According to the Shah 1Vameh of Firdusi (q. v.), the history of Persia begins some thousands of years before the Christian era. Little has .yet been done towards extracting the grains of historical truth that may be contained in the mass of fable that constitutes the native Persian annals; although hopes are cherished that by aid of the many inscriptions and monuments that are being daily discovered, light may yet be thrown upon many points. In the meantime, we must rest contented with the amounts derived from Greek writers. The north-western part of Iran, anciently called Media (q.v.), was, at the earliest period known to the Greeks, a part of the Assyrian empire, but the Medes revolted, and (708 Ito.), under Dejoces, established an empire which subdued both that of Assyria and their own kindred tribes of Persis. See MianA. About 537 n.e., the Persians under Cyrus (q.v.)-the Kai-Khnsru of the Persians—(559-521) n.e.) rebelled, subdued their former masters, the Medes (who from this time became amalgamated with them), and established a mighty empire, whiell included besides Persia. as far as the Oxus and Indus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. Ilis son, CAMBYSES, a most ferocious and blood-thirsty tyrant (529-522 n.e.), subdued Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt. After the brief rule of the usurper Smunots (522-521 n.c.), Darius 1. (q.v.), surnamed HYSTASPES—the Gushtasp of the Persians— (521-485 n.c.), mounted the throne. He was a politic and energetic prince, and suc ceeded in firmly establishing his dynasty, and adding Thrace and Macedonia to his empire; but his two attempts to subdue Greece were completely foiled, the first by the Thracians, and the second by the Athenians at Marathon 1490 n.c.). Ilis sou, XERXES I. (485-465 n.c.)—the Isfundear of the Persians—renewcd the attempt to subdue the Greek states, and though at first successful, the defeats of Salamis and Platrea compelled him to limit himself to a defensive warfare, which exhausted the resources of his king dom. Ilis son, ARTAXERXF.S I. (465-425 n.c.), surnamed LONGIMANUS (the Bateman of the Persians, better known as Ardeshir Dirazdust), was a valiant prince, but lie was unable to stay the decadence of Persia, which had now commenced. lie, however, crushed a formidable rebellion in Egypt, though his wars with the Greeks and Ionians were unsuccessful. The empire now became a prey to intestine dissensions, which con tinued during the reigns of his successors, Xerxes fl., Sogdianus, Darius 11., Artaxerxes II., and Artaxerxes III. DAntus III., 430DO3iANNUS (336-329) (the Darab II. of the Persians), the last of the dynasty, was Compelled to yield his throne to Alexander (q.v.) the great, king of Macedon (known as Secunder by the Persians), who ree.onquered all the former provinces of Persia, and founded a vast empire, which, at his death in 324 B.C., was divided into four parts, Persia along with Syria falling to the share of the Seleucidte (q.v.), and its old dependency, Egypt. to the Ptolemies (q.v.). The Selencid.e soon lost Bactria (now Balkh), which became independent under a series of Greek sover eigns; and about 246 n.e., Parthia (q.v.)—now northern Khorassan—also rebelled under ARSACES I. (the Ashk of the Persian writers), who founded the dynasty of the Arsacidn, under whom the greater part of Persia was wrested from the Greeks, and maintained against both the Greeks and Romans. The Greek empire of Bactria, which is said to have included a great part of Hindustan, was overthrown by an influx of nomad tribes from Turkistan, and these invaders having been driven out by the Parthians, Bactria was added to their empire. 13tit the dynasty of the Arsacidai was brought to an end by a Persian named Ardeshir 13:tbegan, who managed to gain possession of Furs, Kerman, and nearly the whole of Irak, before Arduan, the Parthian king, took the field against him. At last, a great battle was fought (218 A.D.) on the plain of Hormuz, in which the Persians were completely victorious, 13ahegan was now hailed as Ardeshir, king of Persia, and ‘• Shahan Shah," or king of kings. The history of this dynasty will be found under the head of SAssANiniE. The Sassanian kings raised Persia to a height of power and prosperity such as it never before attained, and more than once periled the exist ence of the eastern empire. The last king was driven from the throne by the Arabs (636 A.D.), who now began to extend their dominion in all directions; and from this period may be dated the gradual change of character in the native Persian race, for they have been from this time constantly subject to the domination of- alien races. During the reigns of Omar (the first of the Arab rulers of Persia), Otinnan, Ali, and the Ommi ades (634-750), Persia was regarded as an outlying province of the empire, and was ruled by deputy governors; but after the accession of the Abhaside dynasty (750 A.n.), Bagdad became the capital, and Rhorassan the favorite province of the early and more energetic rulers of this race. and Persia consequently came to be considered as the center and nucleus of the caliphate. But the rule of the caliphs soon became merely nominal, and ambitious governors, or other aspiring individuals, established independent princi palities in various parts of the country. Many of these dynasties were transitory, others lasted for centuries, and created extensive and powerful empires. The chief were tho T.,kumnaEs (820-72), a Turkish dynasty in Khorassan; the SOFFARIDES (Persian, 869 903), in Seistan, Fars, Irak, and Mazanderan; the in Transoxiana, Khorassan, and Seistan; the Du.Exir (Persian, 933-1056), in western Persia; and the Ghiznevides (q.v.), in eastern, Persia. These dynasties supplanted each other, and were finally rooted out by the Se'kilts (q.v.), whose dominion extended from the Hellespont to Afghanistan. A branch of this dynasty, which ruled in Khaurezin (now Khiva, q.v.) gradually acquired the greater part of Persia, driving out the Ghiznevides and their successors, the Gliurides (q.v.); but they, along with the numerous petty dynasties which had established themselves in the south-western provinces, were all swept away by the 3lon gols (q.v.) under Geughis-khan (q.v.) and his grandson, Bulaku-khan, the latter of whom founded a new dynasty, the PERSO-MONGOL (1253-1335). This race becoming effeminate, was supplanted by the EYLMIANIANS in 1335, but an irruption of the Tartars of Turkistan under (q.v.) again freed Persia from the petty dynasties which mis ruled it. After the death of Timar's son and successor, shah Rokh, the Turkomans took possession of the western part of the country, which, however, they rather preyed upon than governed; while the eastern portion was divided and subdivided among ThinIr's descendants, till, at the close of the 15th c., they were swept away by the Uzlx!ks (q.v.), who joined the whole of eastern Persia to their newly founded khauate of Khiva. A new dynasty now arose (1500) in western Persia, the first prince of which (Ismail, the descendant of a long line of devotees and saints, the objects of the highest reverence throughout western Persia), having become the leader of a number of Turkish tribes who were attached by strong ties of gratitude to his family, overthrew the power of the Turkomans, and seized Azerbijan, which was the seat of their power. Ismail subdued the western provinces, and in 1511 took Khorassan and Balkh from the Uzbeks; but in 1514 lie had to encounter a much more formidable enemy—to wit, the mighty Selim (q.v.), the sultan of Turkey, whose zeal for conquest was further inflamed by religious animosity against the Shiites, or " Sectaries," as the followers of Ismail were termed. The Persians were totally defeated in a hatttle on the frontiers; but Selim reaped no benefit from his victory, and after his retreat, Ismail attacked and subdued Georgia. The Persians dwell with rapture on the character of this monarch, whom they deem not only to be the restorer of Persia to a prosperous condition, and the founder of a great dynasty, but the establisher of the faith in which they glory as the national religion. His son Tamasp (1523-76), a prudent and spirited ruler, repeatedly drove

out the predatory Uzbeks from Khorassan, sustained without loss a war with the Turks, and assisted Homayun, the son of Baber, to regain the throne of Delhi. After a considerable period of internal revolution, during which the Turks and Uzbeks attacked the empire without hindrance, shah Abbas I. the great (1585-1628), ascended the throne, restored internal tranquillity, and repelled the invasions of the Uzbeks and Turks. In 1605 he inflicted on the Turks such a term ible defeat as kept them quiet during the rest of his reign, and enabled him to recover the whole of Kurdistan, Mosul, and Diarbekir, which had for a long time been separated frnm Persia; and in the east, Candahar was taken from the great ,Mogul. Abbas's government was strict, but just and equitable; roads, bridges, caravansaries, and other conveniences for trade, were constructed at immense expense, and the improvement and ornamentation of the towns were not neglected. lspahan more than doubled its population during his reign. His tolerance was remarkable, considering both the opinions of his ancestors and subjects; for he encouraged the Armenian Christians to settle in the country, well knowing that their peaceable and industrious habits would help to advance.the prosperity of his kingdom. Ills successors, shah Sufi (1628-41), shah Abbas II. (1641-66), and shah Soliman (1606-94), were undistinguished by any remarkable talents, but the former two were sensible and judicious rulers, and advanced the prosperity of their subjects. During the reign of sultan Hussein (1694-1722). a weak and bigoted fool, priests and slaves were elevated to the most important and responsible offices of the empire, and all who rejected the tenets of the Shiites were persecuted. The conshquence was a general dis content. of which the Afghans (q.v.) took advantage by declaring their independence, and seizing Candahar (1709). Their able leader, Meer Zunis, died in 1715; but his suc cessors were worthy of him, anti one of them, Mahmnd, invaded Persia (1722), defeated Hussein's armies, and besieged the king in Ispahan, till the inhabitants were reduced to the extremity of distress. Hussein then abdicated the throne in favor of his conqueror, who, on his accession, immediately devoted his energies to alleviate the distresses and gain the confidence of his new subjects, in both of which objects be thoronghly suc ceeded. Becoming insane, he was deposed in 1725 by his brother Ashraf (1725-29); but the atrocious tyranny of the latter was speedily put an end to by the celebrated Nadir shah (q.v.),.who first raised Tamasp (1729-32) and his son, Abbas II. (1732-36), of the Suffavean race, to the throne, and then, on some frivolous pretext, deposed him, and seized the scepter (1736-47). But on his death, anarchy again returned; tile country was horribly devastated by the rival claimants for the throne; Afghanistan (q.v.) and Beloochistan (q.v.) finally separated from Persia, and the country was split up into a number of small independent states till 1755, when a Kurd, named Kerim-klmu (1755 1779), abolished this state of affairs, re-established peace and unity in western Persia, and by his wisdom, justice, and warlike talents acquired the esteem of his subjects, and the respect of neighboring states. After the usual contests for the succession, accom panied with the usual barbarities and devastations, Kerlin was succeeded in 1784 by Ali Murad, Jaafar, and Luft-Ali, during whose reigns Mazanderan became independent under Aga-Mohammed, a Turkoman eunuch of the Kajar race, who repeatedly defeated the royal armies, and ended by depriving Luft-Ali of his crown (1795). The great eunuch-king (as he is frequently called), who founded the present dynasty, on his acees --t:OD announced his intention of restoring the kingdom as it laid been established by 'Cerium khan, and accordingly invaded Khorassan and Georgia. subduing the former country almost withoht effort. The Georgians besought the aid of Russia; but the mon arch, with terrible promptitude, poured his army like a torrent into the country, and devastated it with tire and sword; his conquest was, however, hardly completed when he was assassinated, May 14, 1797. His nephew, Futteh-Ali (1797-18:4), after numerous conflicts) fully established his authority, and completely subdued time rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but the great commotions in western Europe produced for him bitter fruits. lie was dragged into a war with Russia soon after his accession, and by a treaty, concluded iu 1797, surrendered to that power Derbend and several districts on the Run. In 180:3 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. War with Russia was recommenced by Persia, at the instigation of France; and, alter two years of conflicts disastrous to time Persians, the treaty of Gulistan (Oct. 12, 1813) gave to Russia all the Persian possessions to the n. of Armenia, and the right of navigation in the Caspian sea. In 1826 a third war, equally unfortunate for Persia, was commenced with the same power, and cost Persia the remainder of its possessions in Armenia, with Erivan, and as sum of 18,000,000 rubles for the expenses of the war. The severity exercised in procuring this sum by taxation so exasperated the people that they rose in Insurrection (Oct. 12. 1829), and murdered the Russian ambassador, his wife, and almost all who belonged to or were connected with the Russian legation. The most humiliating concessions to Russia, and the punishment by mutilation of 1500 of the rioters, alone averted war. The death of the crown-prince, Abbas-3lirza (q.v.), in 1833, seemed to give the final blow to the declining fortunes of Persia, for he was the only man who seriously attempted to raise his country from the state of abasement into which it had .fallon. By the assistance of Russia and Britain, Mohammed-shah (1834-48), the son of Abbas-Mirza, obtained the crown. He conceived ambitious ideas of annexation. In the days of Nadir-shah, and indeed at many other periods, the Persian frontier had extended over a great part of the Afghan, Belooch, and Khivan boundary. Mohammed resolved to demand reacknowledg meut of sovereignty from his alleged vassals in these countries, but an attempt he made to re-annex Ilerat, "the key to India," was resisted by England. The war was termi nated in 1838 by the landing of a small sepoy force on the shores of the Persian gulf. Nazir-uddin succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 18-IS; and time new govern ment announced energetic reforms, but failed as completely as those which had preceded it in carrying them out. Following his father's example, the new shah resolved to reas sert his claims in Afghanistan and Beloochistau. The ruler of Herat having recognized the claims of Persia, the English government remonstrated with the shah, anti he was compelled to sign an engagement on Jan. 25, 1833, by which he became bound not to interfere further with the internal affairs of Herat. In Oct., 1856, however, on the pre text that Dost Mohammed, the ameer of Cabul, was about to invade Herat. the Persians again took time city. Having thus violated time terms of the treaty with Britain, war was declared against them, and a British army was lauded on the coast of the gulf, which. tinder gem's. Outrun and Havelock, repeatedly defeated the Persians, and compelled them to restore Herat (July, 1857). Since this time the Persians have not interfered with the " key to Indium," to which so much importance has been attached by England, but they have been engaged in a long series of disputes with regard to their frontier n. and s. of it. After the war of 1857 their encroacinnents became systerhatic. In 1868 they occupied Seistan, a province claimed by the Afghans, and extended their jurisdic tion over the western third of the country appearing on our maps as Beloochistan. To put um end to time incessant strife to which these pretensions gave rise, the Persians at length agreed whim the mutter of Afghanistan and the khan of Kelat to refer the ques tions in dispute to an English commissioner. Gen. sir Frederick Goitismid accordingly visited the eastern frontier of Persia, and in 1872 delivered his award. It entirely alters 1:10 form familiar to us as that of s.e. Persia. It carries the Belooch frontier back from 38' to 63° e. long., so as to include in Persia the inland town of Jalk, and Gwadar on the Indian ocean. All the western shores of the lake of Zirreh, and a large triangular tract to the e. of it, watered by the Helmund, are also annexed to Persia. The me. frontier has not yet been settled. In 1870 the Russians admitted that the jurisdiction of Persia should extend over the whole basin of the Atrek. It has been found, however, that between it and the Khivan desert there lies the fertile ridge of the Daman-i-koll and the water-course of the Tejend Rud, along which lies a route from the Caspian to Mery and Ilerat. Merv, the center of the oasis of Margiana, and which is almost as much a key to India as Herat itself, has been claimed both by Khiva and Persia, and now that the Russians have become masters of the former country, the settlement of the frontier of Persia in this direction has become the most urgent question of Persian politics, con nected closely as it is wi:h the determination of the Anglo-Russian frontier in ceutral Asia. In 1873 the shah visited Europe. By the treaty of Berlin in 1878 the town and territory of Khotour, on the Turco-Persian frontier, was ceded to Persia by Turkey, See Report on the Population, Revenue, Military Fbree, and Trade of Persia, by Mr. Ronald Thomson, dated Teheran, April 20, 1868; Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia, by lady Shiel (Loud., 1856); _History of Persia from 1800 to 1858, by R..G. Wat son (Loud. 1873); Uistory (f Persia, by G. Clements R. Markham (1874); Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier Question, by N. Vambery (1874); and F. Martin's State- MA Year-Book. See also German works on Persia by F. Spiegel (Berlin, 1863); Dr. H. Brugsh (Leip., 1864); and Dr. J. E. Polak (Leip., 1865).