History.—The Poles are ethnologically a branch of the Slaves (q.v.). The name appears first in history as the designation of a tribe, the Polani, who dwelt between the Oder and Vistula, surrounded by the kindred tribes of the Masovii, Kujavii, Chrobates, Silesians, Obotriles, and others. In course of time, the Polani acquired an ascendency over the other tribes, most of whom became amalgamated with the ruling race_whose name thus became the general designation. Polish historians profess to go as far back as the 4th c.; but the list of rulers which they give are probably those of separate tribes, and not of the combined race now known as Poles. At any rate. the history of Poland, previous to the middle of the 9th c., is so largely adulterated with fables, as to be little trustworthy. Ziemoviez, said to be the second monarch of the Piast dynasty, is con sidered to be the first ruler whose history is to any extent to be relied upon; and it was not till a century after, when his descendant, Micislas I. (962-92), occupied the throne, and became a convert to Christianity. that Poland took rank as one of the political powers of Europe. Micislas (as was the general custom among the Polish rulers), divided his dominions among his sons; but one of them, Boleslas 1. (992-1G25). surnamed the great," soon reunited the separate portions, and extended his kingdom beyond the Oder, the Carpathians, and the Dniester, and sustained a successful war with the emperor Henry II. of Germany, conquering Cracovia, Moravia, Lusatia, and Misnia. lie also took part in the dissensions among the petty Russian princes. Under him, Poland began to assume unity and consistency; commerce, the impartial administration of justice, and Christianity were encouraged and promoted; and about the same time, the distinction between the nobles or warrior class (those who were able to equip a horse) and the agriculturists was distinctly drawn. Boleslas was recognized as "king" by the German emperors. After a period of anarchy, he was succeeded by his son, Casimir (1040-58), whose reign, and that of his warlike son, Boleslas II. (1058-81), though brilliant, were of little real profit to the country. The latter monarch having with his own hands murdered the bishop of Cracow (1079), Poland was laid under the papal interdict, and the people absolved from their allegiance; Boleslas accordingly fled to Hungary. hut being, by order of the pope, refused shelter, lie is said to have committed suicide (1081). Boleslas III. (1102-39), an energetic monarch, annexed Pomerania, defeated the pagan Prussians, and defended Silesia against the German emperors. A division of the kingdom among his sons was productive of much internal dissension, under cover of which, Silesia was severed from Poland, though still nominally subject to it. Ultimately, Casimir H. (1177-94) reunited the severed portions, with the excep tion of Silesia, and established on a firm footing the constitution of the country. A senate was formed from the bishops, palatines, and castellans, and the rights of the clergy and of the peasantry were accurately defined. His death was the signal for a contest among the various claimants for the throne, which was speedily ft2llow2d, as usual, by a division of the country, and during this disturbance Pomerania emancipated itself from Polish rule. About the same time, the Teutonic knights were summoned by the duke of Masovia to aid him against the pagan Prussians: but they soon became as formidable enemies to Poland as the Prussians, and conquered great part of Podhicliii and Lithuania. The Mongols swept over the country in 1241, reducing it to the verge of ruin, and defeating the Poles in a great battle near Wahlstatt. From this time, Poland began to decline; various districts were ceded to the markgrafs of Brandenburg, while many districts began to be colonized by Germans. Numbers of Jews, persecuted in western Europe about this time, took refuge in Poland. Wladislas (1805-33), sur named bloktelz (the short), again restored unity to the country, judicial abuses and all illegally acquired privileges were abolished, and the first diet (1881) assembled for legis lative purposes. In conjunction with Gedymin, grand duke of Lithuania, a vigorous war was carried on against the Teutonic knights, on returning from which the aged monarch (he was now 70 years old) experienced a triumphant reception from his sub who hailed him as the "father of his country. His son, Casimir III. the great (1333-70), greatly increased the power and prosperity of Poland by cultivating with zeal tire arts of peace, amending the laws, and consolidating his territories by profitable exchanges with the neighboring powers. In the latter part of his reign, he was com pelled to defend sundry new acquisitions against the Tartars, Lithuanians, and Wallach nuns, which he did successfully. With Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct, after a sway of MO years, according to the old Polish chroniclers. His nephew, Lewis the great, king of Hungary, succeeded him, by the will of the deceased monarch and the election of tile diet; but during his reign; Poland was treated merely as an appanage of Hungary. On his death without male heirs, the crown fell to Jagello (Wladislas grand duke of Lithuania, the son-in-law of Lewis. who founded the dynasty of the Jagelloaa (q.v.) (1886-1572), and for the first time united Lithuania and Poland, thus doubling the extent, though not the population of the kingdom. However, his suc cessor, Wladislas III., was acknowledged only in Poland proper, the Lithuanians pre ferring the nile of the younger son, Casimir. Wladislas was also chosen king of Hun gary, and fell at the battle of Varna, being succeeded in Poland by Casimir IV. (1441 02), who again united it to Lithuania. Casimir recovered west Prussia from the Teu tonic knights, and compelled them to do homage for cast Prussia, rewarding the inferior nobles, or warrior class, with more extensive privileges, putting them on an equality of rank with tha great chiefs of the realm, and at the same time necessarily oppressing the peasantry. Manufactures and.commerce revived to a wonderful extent during his reign in the western provinces. The brief reigns of his three sons were marked only by the increased power of the two houses of the diet, which had by this time absorbed all but the symbols of supreme authority, and had converted Poland from a monarchy to an oligarchy (the king possessing little power beyond what his personal influence gave him). Sigismund I. (1503-48) surntraed the great, the fourth son of Casimir, raised the country to the utmost pitch of prosperity. Generous and enlightened, be was beloved by the masses, whom he endeavored to benefit physically and mentally, while his firmness and justness comma/tied the respect of the turbulent nobles. He wisely kept aloof from the religious quarrels which distracted western Europe, by allowing his subjects perfect freedom of choice in matters of religion; he was, however, forced into a war with Russia, in which he lost Smolensk; but he was partly compensated by obtaining lord ship over Moldavia. His son, Sigismund IL , Augustus, was a successor worthy of him. During his reign many abuses were rectified, and the extraordinary privileges of the higher nobles were curtailed or abolished; Lithuania was finally joined indissolubly to Poland, and from this time there was to be but one diet for the united realm; each retained, however, its own army, titles, treasury, and laws. Lithuania was at the same time reduced by the annexation of Podlachia. Volhynia, and the Ukraine, to Poland. Livonia was conquered from the knights sword-hearers (a community similar to, though much less distinguished than the Teutonic knights); and the power, prosperity, and opulence of the state seemed to guarantee its position as the most powerful state in eastern Europe for a long time to come. The population almost doubled itself under the two Sigismunds; but this dynasty, whose sway was so happy for Poland, ceased with them; and the warrior class having tasted the sweets of freedom, determined to preserve it by rendering the monarchy elective. Ile election was made by the two chambers of the diet—viz., the senate or chamber of the chief nobles, and the chamber of nuncios, or representatives of the inferior nobles. He who was chosen king pos sessed the right of assembling the diet, but had to give a list of the subjects to. be dis cussed; and the representatives, before setting out, were instructed as to the side they were to support. The diet only lasted six weeks, and its decisions were required to he unanimous; so that if the liberum veto (the right of forbidding the passing of any measure) were freely exercised even by a single membar, all legislation was at n stand still. The evil effects of these regulations were not so much felt at first, as the members were characterized by honesty and zeal for the general good: but latterly, when venality and subservience to the neighboring powers began to show themselves, all the measures necessary for protecting Poland from dependence on her neighbors were, by a few corrupt and treacherous representatives, rendered of no avail. The first elective no was Henry of Valois (III. of France, q.v.), who, however, soon abandoned the throne for that of France, and was succeeded by Stephen Battory (1575–S6), voirode of Transylvania, a man of energy and talent, who carried on war successfully against the Russians, who had attempted to seize Livonia, pursued them into the very heart of their own country, and compelled the czar to sue for peace; lie also subdued the semi-inde pendent• Cossacks of the Ukraine, and to some degree introduced civilization among them. his successor, Sigismund III. (1586-1632), who was succeeded by his sons, Whidislas IV, (1632-48) and John Casimir (1648-72), was of the Vasa family, and was the crown-prince of Sweden; but his election, far from cementing a bond of union between the two countries, only imbittered former dissensions. These three Swedish monarchs were most unworthy successors to Poland's ablest king, as they had neither talents for governing, nor characters and sentiments congenial to a warlike nation; on the contrary, their policy was weak, tortuous, and vacillating. Yet they were always quarreling with their neighbors, declaring war with Russia, Sweden, or Turkey, in the most Imprudent and reckless manner, and often without valid pretext. But the Polish armies, though as little fostered and cared for as the other portions of the nation, were everywhere victorious; the Swedish and Muscovite armies were successively annihilated ; Moscow was taken, and the Russians reduced to such an abject condition, that they offered to make Sighmiund's son, Wladislas, their czar. Sweden made a similar offer to another son of the Polish monarch; but the latter's absurd behavior lost for Poland this rich rcfsult of her great \victories; and the foolish policy of the whole three not only rendcrid fruitless all the lavish expenditure of Polish blood and treasure, but lost to tho country many of her richest provinces, and left her without a single ally; while their religious bigotry commenced that reign of intolerance and mutual persecution between the various sects which was the immediate cause of Poland's downfall. To show the power of the Poles at this period, it will be sufficient to notice that Great Poland, Little Poland (Galicia, Podolia, Ukraine, etc.), Livonia, Lithuania, (including Samogitia and Black and White Russia, Polesia, and Tchernigov), Pomerelia and Ermeland, Courlaud, Moldavia, Bukovina, Wallachia, Bessarabia, and Prussia, were either integral parts of the Polish monarchy, or were subject to it. The imprudent attempts of the Swedish
sovereigns to amend the constitution only excited the suspicion of the nobles, and led to a further curtailment of royal authority. During the reign of this dynasty, Wallachia and Moldavia were snatel•u by the Turks from tinder the Polish protectorate; Livonia with Riga was conquered (1605-21), along with part of Prussia (1629), by Sweden; and Brandenburg established itself in complete independence. The Cossacks, who had been goaded almost to madness by the most atrocious oppression and religious persecution, rose in rebellion to a man, put themselves under' the protection of Russia, and ever afterward proved themselves the most inveterate enemies of the Poles. In the reign of John Casimir, Poland was attacked simultaneously by Russia, Sweden, Brandenburg (the germ of the present kingdom of Prussia), the Transylvanians, and the Cossacks; the country was entirely overrun; Warsaw, Wdna, and Lemberg taken; and the king compelled to flee to Silesia. But the celebrated staff of Polish generals was not 11 t extinct; Czarniccki's sword was as the breath of the destroying angel to Poland's enemies; and after being defeated in detail, they were ignominiously expelled from the country. But in the subsequent treaties, Ducal or east Prussia was wholly given up to Brandenburg; almost all Livonia to Sweden; and Smolensk. Severia or Tchernigov, and the Ukraine beyond the Dnieper, were given to Russia. 'Michael Wisniowiecki (1665 74), the son of one of the group of famous generals above alluded to, but himself an imbecile, was (contrary to his own wish—for he was well aware of his own deficiencies) elected as their next monarch; a war with Turkey, concluded by an ignominious peace, was the chief event of his reign. But the senate rejected the shameful treaty, the Polish army was again re-enforced. the Polish monarch resigned the command to John Sobieski the Heiman (q.v.), and the Turks were routed with great slaughter. at Choezhn (1673). After some dissensions concerning the election of a successor, John (III., q.v.) Sobieski (1674-96) was chosen; but his reign, though it crowned the Poles with abundance of the laurel wreaths of victory, was productive of no good to the internal administration. As Sobieski's successor, the prince of Conti was legally elected, and proclaimed king; but the cabinet of Versailles allowed this splendid opportunity of becoming supreme in Europe to escape; and Augustus II. of Saxony, a proafgi: of the house of Austria, entered Poland at the head of a Saxon army, and succeeded in obtaining the throne. Augustus. unlike all his predecessors, never seemed to identify his interests with those of his Polish subjects; and though he gained their hearts by promising to reconquer for Poland her lost provinces, yet this promise was chiefly matte as an excuse for keeping l- Saxon army in the country, in violation of the paeta conventa (die "magna charm" of Poland). His war with the Turks restored to Poland part of the Ukraine and the fortress of Kaminiec; but that with Charles XII. brought nothing but misfortune. Thu war with Sweden was unpopular in Poland; in fact, the Poles of the eastern provinces received Charles with open arms; but his attempt to force upon them Stanislas Les zynski as their king severely wounded their national pride. Augustus returned after the battle of Poltava (q.v.); his rival retired without a contest; a close alliance was formed with Russia, and the Russian troops which had campaigned in Poland against the Swedes were, along with his Saxon army, retained. The Poles demanded their extradition, but in vain; and the Russian cabinet interfered (1717) between the king and his subjects, compelling both parties to sign a treaty of peace. This was the commence ment of Poland's dependence on Russia, and her consequent decline. By the instigation of Peter the great, the Polish army was reduced from 80,000 to 18,000; and the country was further weakened by the diffusion of effeminacy, immorality, and prodigality, through the evil example and influence of the court. Religious fanaticism also more fully developed its most odious during his reign, and the massacre of the Prot estants at Thorn (1724) and the legalized exclusion of them from all public offices was the result. The succeeding reign of Augustus III. (1733-63) was of the same character; the government full more and more under Russian influence, and its political relations with oilier countries gradually ceased. Toward the end of his reign, the more enlightened of the Poles, seeing the radical defects of the constitution, the want of a strong central government, and the dangers of the Boman veto, entered into a league to promote the establishment of a well-organized hereditary mon archy. But the conservative or republican party was equally strong, and relied on Russian influence; and the conflict between these parties became more imbittered from the fact that the monarchists supported the Jesuits in disqualifying all dissenters from holding public offices, while the republican party supported the dissidents. The dissi dents dated their grievances from 1717, but the great conflict between them and their opponents did not break out till 1763. The cabinets of St. Petersburg and Berlin now (1764) presented to the Poles Stanislas Pouiatowski as their king. This gross insult, intensified by the incapacity of Stanislas for such an office, could not be borne in quiet; the king and the Russian ambassador were compelled in the diet to listen to the most spirited protests against Russian interference; but the intense national spirit of the Poles only recoiled upon themselves. for the Russian ambassador craftily incited them to insnrreetion, and kept alive their mutual dissensions. The monarchic, or Czartoryski party (so called because it was headed by a Lithuanian prince of this imam), had sue ceeded in abolishing the Berlina veto, and effecting many other improvements; but they at the same time more severely oppressed the dissidents; and Russia, finding that the political policy of this party was speedily releasing Poland from her grasp, joined the party of the dissidents as the champion of religious toleration! Her ambassador caused the chief leaders of the Catholic party to be secretly kidnapped, and sent to Siberia, anti compelled the republicans to accept the protectorate of Russia. The "confederation of Bar" (so called from Bar in Podolia) was now formed by a few zealous patriots, an army was assembled, and war declared against Russia. The confederates were sup ported by Turkey, which also declared war against the czarina; and Russia, alarmed at the appearance of affairs, proposed to the king and diet an alliance, which both firmly refused. Frederic the great of Prussia, who had formerly gained the consent of Austria to a partition of Poland, now, in 1770, made -the same proposal to Russia, and in 1772 the first partition was effected; Stanislas and his diet claiming the mediation and assist ance of the other powers of Europe without effect. He was forced in the following year to convoke a diet for the purpose of recognizing the claims of the three partitioning powers to the territories they had seized, but few members appeared, and these preserved perfect silence. The territories seized by the three powers were.as follows: Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia.... • 42,000 1,800,000 Prussia 13,000 416,000 Austria... 27,000 2,700,000 The whole country was now aroused to a full sense of its danger; and the diet of the diminished kingdom labored to amend the constitution and strengthen the administra tion by a liberal code of laws and regulations, which gave political rights to the cities, civil rights to the peasantry, and rendered the kingly authority hereditary. In this they were encouraged by Prussia, whose king, Frederic William, swore to defend them against Russia; but in Catharine II., after great labor, obtained, by means of intrigues and bribery, the services of five (out of 200,000) of the Polish nobility, who pro. tested against the new constitution which had just (May 3, 1701) been established, and drew up a document at Targowitz (q.v.), which they forwarded to the Russian court. Catharine, thus armed with a pretext for interference, advanced her army, and Prussia proving traitorous, a second fruitless resistance to the united Prussians and Russians, headed by Joseph Poniatowski (q.v.) and Kosciusko (q.v.), was followed by a second partition (1793) between Russia and Prussia, as follows: Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia.. 96,000 3,000,000 Prussia 22,000 1,100,000 which the diet were forced to sanction at the point of the bayonet. The Poles now became desperate; a general rising lima: place (1794); the Prussians were compelled to retreat to their own country, and the Russians several times routed; but then a new enemy appeared on the scene. Austria was chagrined at having taken no part in the second partition, and was determined not to be behindhand on this occasion; her army accordingly advanced, compelling the Poles to retreat; and fresh hordes of Russians arriving. Kosciusko, at the head of the lak patriot army, was defeated; and the sack of Praga, followed by the capture of Warsaw, finally annihilated the Polish monarchy. The yard and last partition (1795) distributed the remainder of the country as follows: Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia 43,000 1,200,000 Prussia ' 21,000 1,000,000 Austria 18,000 1,000,000 King Stanislas resigned his crown, and died broken-hearted at St. Petersburg in 1708. The subsequent success of the French against the Russians, and the tempting promises of the emperor Napoleon to 'reconstitute Poland, rallied round him a faithful army of patriots, who distinguished themselves in the campaigns of the French against Russia and Austria; but all that Napoleon accomplished in fulfillment of his promise was the establishment, by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), of the Duchy of TITarsatr, chiefly out of the Prussian share of Poland, with a liberal constitution, and the elector of Saxony at its head. • The duchy was an energetic little state, and under the guidance of prince Joseph Poniatowski, wrenched western Galicia from Austria (1809), at the same time furnish ing a numerous and much-valued contingent to the French armies; but the advance of the grand allied army in 1813 put an end to its existence. After the cessions by Austria in 1809, the duchy contained 58.290 English sq.m., with a population of about 4,000,000. Dantzic was also-declared a republic, but returned to Prussia (Feb. 3, 1814). The division of Poland was rearranged b' the congress of Vienna iu 1815, the original shares of Prussia and Austria were diminished. and that of the duchy of Warsaw which was not restored to Prussia and Austria was united as the kingdom, of Poland (see next article) to the Russian empire, but merely by the bond of a personal union (the same monarch being the sovereign of each), the two states being wholly independent of and uncon nected with each other; and the other parts of Poland were completely incorporated with the kingdoms which had seized them. The partition of Poland, as thus finally arranged, was as follows: Extent in 18i9.) Present Political Divisions.
Eng.sq.m., Provinces of Couriand.Witebsk.ltosno, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Russia 220,500 16,000,000 Mobiles, Vo!hynia, Kiev, Podolia; and the kingdom of Po land (q.v.).