Prussia 2G,000 3.000.000 Posen, most of IV. Prussia, and several districts in E. Prussia.
Austria 33,500 5,000,000 Galicia, Bukovina, Zips, etc.
while, as if in mockery of its spirit of independence, the town of Cracow, with a small surrounding territory, was declared free and independent, under the guardianship of Austria. The czar at first gave a liberal constitution, including biennial diets, a respon sible ministry, an independent judiciary, a separate standing army, and liberty of the press; and he seemed to take pride in his title of king of Poland; but his brother Constantine, having been appointed military governor, speedily put an end to the har mony between the czar and the Poles, and drove the latter into insurrection. Their dis content at first found vent in secret societies; but on Nov. 30, 1830, Constantine and his Russians were driven out of Warsaw, and a general insurrection of the people, headed by the aristocracy, took place. Prince Czartoryski was appointed president of the pro visional government. and military leaders, as Radzivil, Dembinski, Bem, etc., were soon found; but a general want of energy in the administration; dilatoriness on the part of the military leaders, and the checking of the spread of the insurrection till fruitless negotia tions had been entered into with Nicholas, were errors fatal to the success of the Poles. From Jan., 1831, till Sept. 8 of the same year, a series of bloody conflicts were fought. in which the Prussians and Austrians, with pitiable subservience, aided the czar. At first the Poles were successful; but the taking of the capital by Paskevitch (q.v.) soon ended the war, which was followed, as a matter of course, by imprisonment, banish ment, confiscation, and enforced service in the Russian army. From this time the inde pendence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared to be an integral part of the Russian empire, with a separate administration headed by a viceroy of the czar's choosing; the constitution and laws were abrogated; strict censorship of the press and time Russian spy police system established in all its vigor; the country was robbed of its rich literary collections and works of art; and the most severe and arbitrary measures taken to Russianize the people. The outbreaks of 1833 and 1816 were punished by the gallows. Simultaaeous disturbances (1846) is the Prussian and Austrian portions of Poland were summarily suppressed; their leaders in Prussia were imprisoned, and only saved from death by the revolution of Mar., 1848, at Berlin; and those in Austria were butchered by the peasantry, who preferred the Austrian to a national government. On Nov. 6, 1816, the republic of Cracow was incorporated with Austria. After the accost sion of the czar Alexander II., in 1855, the condition of the Poles was considerably ameliorated; an act of amnesty brought back many of the expatriated Poles, and various ether reforms were hoped for, when, in 1861, another insurrection broke out. Its origin is envious, and gives a thorough insight into the relations between the Poles and their Mission rulers. A. large multitude (30,000) had assembled in the neighborhood of the battle-field of Groehow (where two battles had been fought in the spring of 1831) to pray for the souls of those who bad fallen; they were engaged in prayer and iu singing religious chants, when they were charged by the Russian cavalry and gem d'armes, several of them killed, and numerous arrests made. This event excited intense national
feeling throughout the country; and other national demonstrations, attended with simi lar massacres on the part of the Russians, produced such an intense dislike to the latter that most of the Poles in the Russian service either resigned or deserted. The Russians immediately had recourse to the most severely repressive measures, forbidding all assemblages even in the churches, punishing those who appeared to mourn the death of killed in the previous massacres, or who wore garments of certain shapes or colors. The application of the Polish nation to the czar (Feb. 28) for the re-establish ment of the Polish nationality, was rejected, but certain necessary reforms were prom ised. These reforms were on the whole very liberal, and tended greatly to allay the general excitement; but the Russian government was very naturally not trusted by the Poles, and new disturbances broke out in October of the same year. Poland was then declared to be in a state of siege, and gen. Luders appointed military commandant under the grand duke Constantine, the nephew of the grand duke Constantine above mentioned. The country continued in a state of commotion without any very decided ouibrcak; attempts were made to assassinate the grand duke and the other Russian officials; and on Jan. 13,` 1863, Lithuania and Volhynia were also put in a state of siege. The committee of the national insurrection issued its first proclamation in Feb., 1863; and a week afterward Mieroslayski raised the standard of 'insurrection in the n.w., on the Posen frontier. The insurrection committee continued to guide the revolt by issuing proclamations from time to time; and many districts of Augustovo, Radom, Lublin, Volhynia, and Lithuania were speedily in insurrection. It was a mere guerilla war, and no great or decisive con flicts took place; but the sympathy of Europe was largely enlisted on behalf of the Poles. Remonstrances from Spain, Sweden, Austria, France, and Britain conjointly and repeat edly, Italy, the Low Countries, Deninark, and Portugal, were wholly disregarded by the czar's ministers, and mutual reprisals continued; incendiarism and murder reigned ram pant; the wealthier Poles were ruined by fines and confiscations; and the whole popula tions of villages were put to the sword by the Russians; while murders and assassina tions marked the reign of terror of the national committee. At last, with the officious assistance of Prussia, and the secret sympathy and support of Austria, the czar's troops succeeded in trampling ont (1864) the last embers of insurrection. Great numbers of men, women, and even children, concerned in, or supposed to have favored the revolt, were executed; crowds were transported to Siberia; and these vigorous measures seem to have restored " tranquillity, but it is the tranquillity of the 4esert." Contemporary with this last outbreak, symptoms of similar disaffection were distinctly noticeable ix Prussian Poland, but a strong force of soldiery in the border districts toward Russia prevented any outbreak. It deserves to be noticed that, with the exception of the single revolt of 1846 (which perished almost of itself), no rebellion has ever taken place in the portion of Poland belonging to Austria.
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