But under this long-continued peace and superficial calm, the internal condition of the empire was coming to a crisis. The stifling bureaucratic system of government and police supervision, had produced only irritation and discontent, and was powerless to compress the fermentation. The opposition in the several nationalities became stronger and stronger, and the tactics of playing these nationalities off against one another, no longer succeeded. The Polish insurrection, which led to the incorporation of Cracow with the monarchy (Nov., 1846), had turned into a frightful rising of the peasantry in Galicia against the nobles. This enabled the government to overpower the political rising; but the success only increased the danger of the crisis, by encouraging it to pro ceed in the old reckless way. In the meantime the opposition to Austrian rule in Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia, was becoming uncontrollable. and even the states of lower A. insisted on some control in time management of the state. The revolutionary movement was already in full swing in Italy, when the fall of Louis Philippe (Feb. 24, 1848) shook Europe to its foundation. A host of petitions and addresses was followed, Mar. 13, by a popular movement in Vienna, to which the government and military, after a feeble resistance succumbed: Metternich resigned, the arming of the citizens and freedom of the press Were granted, and the emperor promised to convoke a consul tative assembly from all parts of the empire. At the same time, the opposition in Hun gary had carried their demand for an independent ministry responsible to the national diet, and the emperor was not in a position to withstand it. The 22d of Mar. saw the insurrection break out at Milan, and Radetzky, the military commander, forced to retire on Verona. Venice rose at the same time, and drove out the Austrians.
While the revolution was thus victorious in the provinces, the central authority was in a state of dissolution. The authority passed into the hands of the national guards and the students' legion (the Auto). A rising of the people (May 15), in support of the central committee, formed from the national guards, which the government had attempted to dissolve, compelled its continuance, and also a revision of the electoral law, so as to convert the new diet into a constituent assembly. These proceedings led to the flight of the court to Innsbruck (May 17). An unsuccessful attempt of the government to break the power of the "Aula," resulted in the appointment of a committee of safety, to whose influence the government had to submit. A Slavin insurrection broke out in Prague after Easter, which was repressed with bloody severity by Prince Windischirrittz. While the emperor was thus lingering at Innstirtick, leaving Vienna in the power of the populace, and the Hungarians were pursuing an independent course, it was in Italy that the power of A. began to recover itself.
Radetzky had at first been reduced to the maintaining of a defensive position at Verona, against Charles Albert of Sardinia, who had declared war on A. at the outbreak of the revolution, and the forces that came to his aid from Tuscany, Rome, and Naples; and the foreign policy of A. was in such a state of discouragement, that negotiations
were entered into under the mediation of Great Britain, offering the Lombards indepen dence on moderate conditions. But in June, Radetzky took up the offensive, reduced in succession Vicenza, Padua, and other cities, and then turning against the chief Sardinian force, defeated it at Custozza (25th July), and drove it from the field. The fruits of the victory were the dissolution of Charles Albert's army, and a truce which again delivered Lombardy to Austria.
In the mean time, the government at Vienna was more powerless than ever. The emperor remained at Innsbruck, and the constituent diet was opened, July 22, by the archduke John, as his representative. But a new crisis was ripening in Hungary. The Croats, under their ban, Jellachich (q.v.), opposed the predominance of the Magyars, and refused obedience to the Hungarian government, which, under the Batthyanyi-Kossuth ministry, was pursuing a policy almost independent of Austria. Jellachieh's resistance was officially condemned by the emperor, and he was threatened with deposition; hut, as subsequently appeared, his conduct was secretly approved by the court. The archduke Palatine, Stephen, now left Hungary, after a last attempt at conciliation: and the emperor, who had returned to Vienna after repeated invitations, named count Lamberg commissioner, with the supreme command in Hungary. Lamberg, however. was murdered on the bridge of Pesth (Sept. 28). The Hungarian parliament was now dissolved, and the command given to Jellachich. But the parliament continued its sittings, and appointed Kossuth president of the committee of defense. When the imperial troops now began to march against Hungary, a frightful insurrection broke out in Vienna (Oct. 6), which was attributed to Hungarian instigation. • The arsenal was stormed, and the war-minister, Latour, murdered; the court fled to Ohniltz, a committee of safety was appointed, the armed populace organized, and the Polish gen. Hem put at the head of military affairs; while the diet wavered between royalty and revolution. In the mean time, the military forces had withdrawn, and joined Jellachich, in order to prevent the Hungarians coming to •tlte aid of the Viennese. Windischgriitz now approached with an army, and declared Vienna in a state of siege. The attack began on the 23d of Oct., and after a resistance of eight days, Vienna surrendered.
Severe measures were then taken; and a number of leaders, among others, Robert Blum (q.v.), were condemned and shot. The diet now met at Kremsir, and a new ministry was formed, into which prince Schwartzenherg, count Stadion, Bach, Bruck, and others entered. But the vigorous policy thought to be necessary for the restoration, and advo cated by the archduchess Sophia, was not responded to by the easy nature of Ferdinand I. Accordingly, the emperor abdicated, Dec. 2, as did also the archduke Franz Karl, and the latter's son, Franz Joseph (q.v.), was declared emperor.