In winter, Windischgrittz entered Hungary, and began the Hungarian war. After the encounters at Raab and Babolna. Ofen was besieged (Jan., 1849), and the Hungarians retired beyond the Theiss, and had time to organize themselves under such able leaders as GUrgei and Klapka, and to prepare for the struggle of the following summer.
In the mean time, important events took place elsewhere. In Mar. (21-23), Radetzky made his rapid and decisive campaign, which, by the victory of Novara, led to the abdication of Charles Albert, and nn indemnification for war expenses from Sardinia of 15 million lire. With the surrender of Venice, which took place in Aug., the subjuga tion of Italy was complete.
At Kremsir, the diet proving intractable, was dissolved, Mar. 4, 1849; and a constitu tion was granted (octroyirt), with two elective chambers, responsible ministers, and ether constitutional provisions. In the national assembly at Frankfurt, A. opposed the project of a. confederated state under the leadership of Prussia, and managed to thwart the conferring of the empire of Germany on the Prussian king (Mar., 1849).
In Hungary, the Magyars, though the Germans and Slaves within the country itself were hostile to them, began the campaign with decided success. Bern conquered Transylvania in spite of Russian aid; and the rest of the Hungarian army advancing westward in spring, were successful against the imperial forces at Szolnok and Waitzen. Windischgrittz was replaced in the command by Weide'', but the imperial cause was not improved. Kossuth's hopes rising, he proclaimed the deposition of the house of Hapsburg, and virtually made Hungary a republic. By May, Pesth and Ofen were again in the hands of the Magyars; and although gen. Welden was recalled, and the 'command given to Haynau, there was little prospect of success against the Magyars, if a treaty with the czar had not brought the aid of a Russian army under Paskewitsch. The Austrians still suffered several reverses, and the Hungarians performed splendid feats of arms, such as Gorgei's victory at Waitzen, and sally from Komorn; but from June, the war on the whole began to be more favorable to A., whose forces were well managed by Haynau and Jellachich; and the intervention of the Russians brought an irresistible weight of numbers against the Magyars. After the affairs of Szegedin and Debreczin, Llaynau's engagements on the
Theiss, and the raising of the siege of TemesWar, it was in vain that Kossuth transferred the dictatorship to argei. Giforgei, whether from treachery, as the other Magyar leaders maintain, or from necessity, as he himself avers, laid down his arms to thellussians at Vilagos (Aug. 13). The surrender of Komorn, in Sept., completed the subjugation of Hungary, which was treated as a conquered country, and the officers taken in Arad were dealt with by Haynau with a bloodthirsty rigor.
A. was now free to attend to politics, internal and external, and the spirit of the restoration soon showed itself. One important fruit of the revolution was retained—the liberation of the soil from the burdens and trammels of feudalism. All other liberal concessions very soon disappeared For a time, the forms of the constitution of Mar., 1849, were retained; but the rigorous military government and the surveillance exercised over the press, showed the tendency of things. The fundamental principles of the con stitution turned out to the profit only of the Catholic church, which got rid of the place tum regium. In the beginning of 1851, Schmerling and Bruck, the liberal element of the ministry, retired; and in Aug. appeared a number of imperial decrees rendering the ministers accountable to the emperor alone. At last, Jan. 1, 1852, it was announced that the constitution and the fundamental rights were abolished, trial by jury set aside, the old press law revived, etc. . This was followed by still greater concessions of influence to the clergy. The emperor did not conceal his predilection for absolute military govern ment. All this was not effected without manifestations of discontent. The tires of revolution were still smouldering in Hungary and Italy; and in Lombardy, though under strict military law, a tumult broke out, Feb., 1853, in which a number of afters and soldiers were stabbed. The finances, too, notwithstanding vigorous measures for improving the material resources of the country, continued in a bad state, so that incessant loans were required to cover the current cleficit.