CIC ERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, the greatest orator of Rome, and one of the most Illus trious of her statesmen and men of letters, was b. at Arpinum, on the 3d of Jan., in the year 106 B.C. He belonged to an ancient family, of the equestrian order, and pos sessed of considerable influence in his native district. His father, himself a man of culture, and desirous that his son should acquire an eminent position in the state, removed him at an early age to Rome, where, under the direction of the orator Crassus, he was instructed in the language and literature of Greece, and in all the other branches of a polite education. In his sixteenth year he assumed the manly gown, and was intro duced to the public life of 'a Roman citizen. He now acquired a knowledge of law, and underwent a complete course of discipline in oratory. At the same time, he studied philosophy under three successive preceptors, of the Epicurean, Academic, and Stoic schools, and neglected no mental exercise, however arduous, which might conduce to his future eminence; being thus early of the opinion which he afterwards maintained in his treatise De Oratore, that an orator should possess almost universal knowledge. With the exception of a brief campaign under Sulla, in the social war, he passed his time in these preliminary studies until his 26th year, when he began to plead in public. In one of his earliest causes, he distinguished himself by defending the rights of Roscius, a pri vate citizen, against one of the favorites of Sulla, who was then dictator. Soon after, for the benefit of his health, and in order to his improvement in elocution, he traveled to the chief seats of learning in Greece and Asia; and, on his return, was regarded as second to no orator at the Roman bar. Having been elected quastor (76 n.c.), he was appointed by lot to a government in Sicily, a post which he filled with great ability, and to the entire satisfaction of those whom lie governed. Some years after his return, lie laid the Sicilians under still greater obligations by his successful prosecution of their pnetor, Verres, against whom he prepared no less than six orations, although the first had the effect of disheartening the accused so effectually, that he voluntarily retired into exile. Passing, at short intervals, through the offices of tedile (69 n.c.) and praetor (66 n.c.), he was at length elected, by an overwhelming majority, to the consulship. His tenure of office was rendered memorable by the conspiracy of Catiline, which lie frus trated with admirable skill and promptitude. See CATILINE. The highest praises were showered upon C.; he was hailed by Cato and Catulus as the "father of his coun try;" and public thanksgivings in his name were voted to the gods. But his popularity did not last long after the expiry of his consulship. His enemies charged him with a public crime, in having put the conspiring nobles to death without a formal trial, and he found it necessary to leave Rome, and went to reside in Thessalonica (38 n.c.). A formal edict of banishment was pronounced against him, but he was recalled from exile in about 16 months, and on his return to Rome was received with great enthusiasm. His recovered dignity, however, soon excited the envy of the honorable party in the senate. with whom lie had desired to make common cause; while Pompey and Ciesar, the est powers in the state, and from whose enmity he had most to dread, courted his alli ance and co-operation. Thus, while preserving an appearance of independence, he was betrayed into many actions which he could not but regard as ignominious, and which, by increasing the power of the triumvirs, led indirectly to the ruin of the republic. A remarkable exception to this servile conduct is to be found in his assisting ,Milo when suing for the consulship, and defending him, against the wish of Pompey, and in spite of the hostile feeling of the populace, after he had slain Clodius in an accidental mu counter. During this period he composed his works, De Oratore, De Republica, and De
Legibus. After a year's admirable administration of the province of Cilicia (51 to 50 n.c.), he returned to Italy ou the eve of the civil war. With the convictions which he avowed, there was but one course which it would have been honorable for him to pursue—to enlist himself, at all hazards, on the side of Pompey and the republic. But instead of this he hesitated, balanced the claims of duty and of interest, blamed Pompey for his want of preparation, and criticised the plan of his campaign. At length he joined the army of the senate, but, after the battle of Pharsalia, abruptly quitted his friends, and resolved to throw himself upon the generosity of the conqueror. After nine months' miserable suspense at Brundusium, he was kindly received by Ctesar, whom he followed to Rome. During the years which ensued, he remained in comparative retirement, com posing his principal works in philosophy and rhetoric, including those entitled Orator; Horteneius; De Pinibus; Tuseulana Disputationes; De J.Yatura Deorum; De Senectute; De dmieitia; and De Officils. On the death of Otesar, he was disposed to,uuite his interests wiih those of Brutus and the other conspirators, but was restrained by dictates of pru dence. In the commotions which followed, he espoused the cause of Octavianus, and gave utterance to his celebrated philippics against Antony. These orations were the occasion of his death. When Octavianus and Lepidus joined with Antony in a trium virate, C. was among the proscribed; and his life was relentlessly sought. The soldiers of Antony overtook him while his attendants were bearing him, now old, and in an infirm state of health, from his Formian villa to Caieta, where he intended to embark. lie met his death with greater fortitude than he had supported many of the untoward incidents of his life. Desiring his attendants to forbear resistance, he stretched forward in the litter, and offered his neck to the sword of his executioners. Ile died in the 63d year of his age, on the 7th Dec., 43 13.C.
The character of C. is one which it is not difficult to estimate. Really a lover of virtue, no one could follow in her footsteps with greater dignity when attended by the popular applause. But he was weak enough to yield to the depraved spirit of his times, and :to act according to his convictions only when they were not evidently dis cordant with his private interests, Few men, possesSing such talents, have been so utterly devoid of anything approaching to heroism. As a statesman, it would be unjust to deny his legislative abilities; but he was generally deficient in courage and resolution. He was one of the greatest masters of rhetoric that have ever lived. His orations were the result of consummate art, combined with unwearied industry, and survive as char acteristic memorials of a time when eloquence, far more than at present, was a power which bent the verdicts of judicial tribunals, and influenced the decrees of the state. In philosophy, he does not rank with the original thinkers of antiquity; nor, in truth, did he aspire to do so. His writings on speculative subjects are chiefly valuable on account of the noble and generous sentiments which they contain, and as reflecting the varied thought of the different schools. The best edition of his collected works is Orelli's (9 vols. 8vo, 1826-1837). See Forsyth's Life of C. (1804).