CONSUL, the title of the two highest ordinary magistrates in the Roman republic. The etymology of the word cannot be precisely determined; thus much, however, seems clear, that it implies that there were more than one—that there were colleagues. The idea of two supreme magistrates, or joint-presidents of the state, seems to have. been inter woven with the earliest conceptions of political organization in Rome. According to tradition, there were at first two kings; and the constitution of Servius is said to have provided for the sovereign power being again divided between two functionaries. But it was not till after the expulsion of Tarquin that Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus were chosen joint-heads of the state. These chief-magistrates seem to have been at first called prcetores (leaders, i.e., of the armies), and the title of co/mutes to have been introduced about 300 n.c. At first, the consuls seem to have differed from the kings in little else than their limited tenure of office, and the power Which their fellow-citizens retained of calling them to account at its termination. They never assumed the golden crown, but their dress in almost every other respect was regal, and they had ivory scepters surmounted by eagles. In public assemblies, they occupied a sort of throne (seller curulls), and it.the senate they presided and sat on elevated seats. They made peace, and negotiated foreign alliances, had the supreme command of the army, and appointed the public treasurers. They likewise exercised the judicial func tions of royalty: In their capacity of supreme judges they continued to be known as prcetores, until ultimately separate magistrates with that title were appointed. The symbol of their authority was the bundle of rods (fasces), with the axe in the center, which was carried before them by twelve lictors. For a considerable period, the consuls were chosen exclusiVely from the populus or patricians, as opposed to the plebs; and during the long struggle between the patricians and plebeians, they sided invariably with their own order. At length, however, two plebeian officers, called tribuni plebis, were appointed as a sort of democratic rivals to the aristocratic consuls. To them was
assigned the duty of presiding in the assemblies of the plebeians, as the consuls did in the other assemblies; and though they could not dictate, they were entitled by their veto to arrest measures proceeding on consular or senatorial authority. The result of this rivalry was, that the consulship was opened to plebeians; and from 172 n.c. down to the period of the empire, the consuls were frequently plebeians. In accordance with the Ordinary course of political development, the organization of the Roman state became more complicated, in proportion as it became impossible for the C. to discharge in person the various ditties which in the beginning always center in the possessors of supreme power. In 442 n.c., censors (q.v.) were appointed. In 305, praetors had the chief judicial functions of the consuls assigned to them. In the government of the provinces, the aid of the former consuls was called in, the C. thus appointed having the title of pro-consul. In sudden and critical emergencies, the consuls were either super seded by a dictator (q.v.), or absolute power for the occasion was conferred on them by the decree of the senate, which ran in the famous formula: Videant consults ye quid respublka detrirnenti capiat—" Let the consuls look to it, that the state take no harm." The oath which the consuls took on entering office they were obliged to repeat as a declaration, not of intention but of fact, on quitting it at the end of the year. The consuls were inaugurated by a great. procession to the capitol and a sacrifice to Jupiter Capitolinus. The shadow of the consulate survived the downfall of liberty; but the Constitutions.
Consul.
election of the consuls was taken from the people and conferred on the senate. Then their number was increased; they were divided into classes—C. ordinarii, sufecti, lamorarii, etc.—till at last the office became a mere honorary appointment conferred by the emperor.
The title of C. was revived in the French republic. See CONSULATE.