Railways, etc.—The railways which intersect each other in all directions, from Basle on the Rhine to Hadersleben in the n. of Slesvig,, and from Bautzen in the e. of Saxony to Aix-la.Chapelle in the w. of Rhenish Prussia, measured, in 1875, about 16,500 Eng lish m.; but these figures strictly represent the length, not of the lines within the limits of the German empire, but of those which are under German administration, though extending some way into states.
The various telegraphic lines of the empire (excepting those of Bavaria and Wtirtem berg) are now under a central administration, and in the end of 1874, the whole meas ured about 25,000 English miles.
The postal system of the German states, which is administered by boards of control, includes the expedition of passengers and goods by the post-carriages of the several departments. Since 1851, in accordance with a treaty concluded between Austria and Prussia, a Germano-Austrian postal union has been established, the objects of which are to secure an effective and more energetic administration of the various branches of the organization and the adoption of a uniform scale of charges, while it likewise exer cises the duty of concluding international postal treaties with foreign states. Bavaria and Wurtemberg have still their special postal administrations.
The multiplicity of small states, into which the Germau.land was long broken up, opposed great obstacles to the development of commerce; but the difficulty was to some extent obviated by the establishment of the Zo/Z send Handels-verein (q.v.), or " Customs and Trade Confederation," and partly also by the absorption of several of the smaller states by Prussia.
Education.—Education is more generally diffused in Germany than in any other country of Europe, and is cultivated with an earnest and systematic devotion not met with to an equal extent among other nations. There are 21 universities: Berlin, Brom lau, Halle, Bonn, Griefswald, Munster, Munich, Wiirtzburg, Erlangen, Leipsic, Tilbingen, Gottingen, Heidelberg, Freiburg, Marburg, Giessen, Jena, Rostock, Kiel, and,trasburg. These institutions embrace the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy; and in June, 1875, bad 1729 'professors and teachers, and 16,359 students. Of the 21 universities of the empire, 14 are Protestant, i.e., in the department of theology, they teach only Protestant theology; four are Roman Catholic. viz , Freiburg, Munich, Miinster, and WOrtzburg; three, viz., Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen, are mixed, Protestantism prevailing in the first two, and Roman Catholic ism in last. There are also 16 polytechnic institutions; about 500 high schools or gymnasia; numerous special schools of technology, agriculture, commerce, military science, etc.; several seminaries for teachers, and for the ministers of different religious denominations; and more than 50,000 elementary schools. The attendance of children
at school, for at least four of five years, is made compulsory in nearly all the German states, and hence the proportion of persons who cannot read and write is exceedingly small in Germany.
Public libraries—of which there are more than 150—museums, botanical gardens.
art-collections, picture-galleries, schools of music and design, and academies of arts and sciences, are-to be met with in most of the capitals, and in many of the country towns, upwards of 200 of which possess one or more permanently established theaters. In no country is the book and publishing trade more universally patronized than in Germany. The press annually sends forth from 8,000 to 10,000 works, while about 3,000 papers and journals are circulated throughout the empire; of the current papers, a comparatively small number only exert any marked influence, but many of the German scientific and literary periodicals enjoy a world-wide reputation. The sorship of the press was abolished by a decree of the diet of 1848, and freedom of the press, under certain restrictions, which were promulgated in 1854, has been introduced. Army and Nay y.-1. Army.—By the constitution of April 16, 1871, the Prussian obligation to serve in the army is extended to the whole empire; article 59 prescribes that every German who is wehrfdhig, i.e., " capable of bearing arms," must be in the standing army from his 21st to his 28th year. Of these 7 years, 3 must be spent in active service (bei den fahnen), and the remainder in the army of reserve. On quitting the army of reserve, he has to form part of the landwehr (q.v.) for other five years. Article 63 enacts that die gesammte Landmacht des Reichs wird ein einheilliches Heer welches im Krieg and Friden enter dent, Befchle des Kaisers steht,"(" time whole land forces of the empire shall form a united army, in war and peace, under the command of the emperor.") The sovereigns of the principal states have the right to select the lower grades of officers, but even their selections require to obtain the approval of the emperor, whose authority is pAramount; article 64 expressly declaring that alle deutsehen Truppen sind verpjlichtet den Befehlen des Raisers unbedingt Folge zu leisten (" all German troops are bound to obey unconditionally time orders of the emperor.") In August, 1875, the imperial army, on its, peace-footing, consisted of 148 regiments of infantry, iuclud ing the guards; 26 battalions of jttger, or riflemen; 93 regiments of cavalry; 49 regi ments of artillery; 19 battalions of engineers; and 18 battalions of military train, coin prising a total of 18,079 officers, 401,659 rank and file, 97,379 horses, and 1200 guns. On its war-footing, the numbers were, in 1878, 31,843 officers. 1,283,791 rank and file, 301,536 horses, and 2,550 guns.