rllilitury Indian military service, like the civil service, underwent a thorough reorganization, consequent on the great mutiny, and the transfer of the govern ment of the country from the East India company to the crown. In 1878 the established military force of British India numbered 190,175, including officers; of whom 123,682 were natives, and 60,227 English (exclusive of officers). India is divided into three military divisions, which, although named after the three old presidencies of Bombay: Madras, and Bengal, and perpetuating their names, have not exactly the same limits. Of the native troops, 47,000 belonged to the Bengal army, 27,000 to the Madras finny, and 24,000 to the Bombay army. The British forces are chiefly stationed in the Punjab, and along the valley of the Ganges. In 1872 there were 37,000 English soldiers in these provinces, of whom 12,000 were in the Punjab, 10,400 were in the Bombay presidency; and 12,200 in that of Madras.
The Police in British India include a force of 190,000 constables or regular policemen, and the village watchmen who aid them. The minimum age of admission is 17, the maximum 21. Each district has a jail and a police superintendent; and the districts are grouped, for police purposes, into circles under deputy-inspectors-general, while the whole police force in each province is under an inspector-general. The constabulary is a purely civil force, subject in all respects, except internal discipline, to the civil authorities.
Administration of Civil 1861, by an act of parliament, high courts of judi cature were established at each presidency and in the North-west Provinces, under the control of a chief-justice, and as many other judges, not exceeding fifteen, as her majesty may appoint. In 1871-72, there were 1,088,150 civil suits India, and there can be no doubt that the machinery for litigation supplied by the courts is much employed. Sir G. Campbell, however, fears that the tendency to uphold the bare doctrines of law—the literal fulfillment of contracts alleged to have been entered into by ignorant and improvi dent people—loads to great hardship in cases which affect poor men and benefit the rich and litigious. The civil procedure code of India offers facilities for litigation which are apt to be abused. Sir George Campbell, in illustration of the views entertained of legal proceedings by some classes of Indian litigants, gives the following account of a litigation between the members of a family originally belonging to one of the hill-tribes. One of the parties, after litigating through all the courts of India, got a decree in the highest court. But there was an appeal to the privy council, and the suitor's funds were exhausted. So they caught an old man, carried him to the top of a hill, and sacrificed him to propitiate the gods who rule the decisions of the privy council. The civil pro cedure code worked such mischief among the Sontals, that the people were exasperated, and had to be removed from the operation of laws applicable generally in Bengal.
Revenue, Expenditure, annexed table shows the gross amount of the public revenue and expenditure of British India, with the surplus or deficiency of revenue in each of the under-mentioned years: The gross amount of the public revenue and expenditure in each province in British India, exclusive of receipts and expenditure in England, for the year ending Mar. 31, 1875, is shown below: The revenues and expenditure of the Eastern settlements, and of Hyderabad assigned' districts, or the Berars, are separated from the revenues and expenditure of British India, and not included in the above statement. The total revenue of British India for was estimated at £63,195,000; the expenditure at £61,039,000. The chief items of the revenue are much in the seine proportion year by year. In 1875 they were: land revenue, £21,037,912; opium, £8,324,879; salt, £6.150,662; stamps, R2,758,042; customs, £2,678, 479; excise on spirits and drugs, £2,346,143. The land tax alone produces nearly the
half of the whole revenue. In India the government has always been considered the owner of the soil, and the actual cultivators pay a rent or tax, in collecting which differ ent systems have hitherto been followed in different parts of the country, known as the Zemindari Settlement, lkohtar, and .tifouzawar or Village Settlement. The latter is the oldest and the simplest system. Each village under this arrangement was regarded as a separate municipality, and each was assessed by the government at a particular sum, for the clue payment of which the headman of the village was considered responsible. The individual distribution of the burden of taxation rested with the village authorities, and government, provided it received its regular dues through the potail, interfered no further. The origin of the Zemindari and Ryotwar settlements requires some explanation. When the English first entered upon the administration of the country, they found that the practice of native their piedecessors, had been to farm out the land revenues of the country to the nobles of the court, or to wealthy bankers, who annually paid a fixed amount into the royal treasury, and collected the government dues on their own behalf, from the actual cultivators of the soil. These farmers of the revenue were termed Zemindars. The question for the English rulers arose, whether or not they were to con sider these men as proprietors. In Bengal and Bahar they were so recognized, and con firmed in their position, the government holding them responsible for the payment of the dues on their estates, and regarding the cultivators on the farms as their tenants. This was lord Cornwallis's Zemindari settlement. In Madras and Bombay, the opposite course was pursued. Claims of the middlemen, or farmers of the revenue, to enjoy any proprie tary rights were totally ignored; and under sir Thomas Monro, the ryotwar system was introduced, by which government makes a separate settlement with each individual cultivator or ryot, who is recognized as the virtual proprietor of the land, or tenant direct under government, so long as he pays the land-tax annually charged on his estate or farm. In 1871, under the administration of lord Mayo, there was created a new depart ment of revenue, agriculture, and commerce. It has charge of all questions relating to land revenue and settlements, works of agricultural improvement, silks and fibers, forests, commerce, trade, and the industrial arts. It has also under its charge the collection of statistics, placed under another new department, the statistical survey of India, of which the director-general is Dr. Hunter. His book on Orissa (see below) was the first install ment of the work done. A series of leading questions has been issued by the director general, showing exactly what information is required from residents in the different districts. A connected account of cacti district will be prepared from the returns, and these will be in turn condensed by the director-general into an imperial statistical account of India. "This survey," says Mr. Markham, "forms an epoch in statistical enterprises, and its practical results will be most important." British India, accounts are kept in rupees, annas, and pie-16 annas going to the rupee, and 12 pie to the anna. The coins are rupees (value 2s. sterling), and half and quarter and half-quarter rupees, in silver; and in copper +, of an mina. The currency of India, however, is chiefly silver, of which a large amount is coined annually, The coinage bears the impress of queen Victoria as empress of India, in the native costume. In 1861 an act was passed by the government of India providing for the issue of a paper currency by means of promissory notes. The amount of notes in circulation in .1877 was £11,641,654.