TOOLS AND MACHINERY. The history of tools goes back to the very beginning of human life. First, of course, tools were used exclusively for agricultural purposes, and for a long period were of the most primitive nature. As human activities became more com plex, the use of tools spread rapidly. Their development, however, for a long time, was very slow. This did not change until steam, electricity, and water power became available for gen eral use. Not until then were many tools developed into machinery.
The most remarkable and diversified improvements in tools and machinery took place beginning with the latter half of the nineteenth century. Gradually in many industries, and somewhat later, in agriculture, a change took place from hand work to machine work, not, of course, resulting in the total exclusion of the former by the latter.
Almost with the beginning of the more general use of machines, an extended controversy arose regarding its effect on industry. There is no doubt that the substitution of machinery for hand tools and of machine work for hand work has far-reaching and deep effects on employment, the individual laborer, out put, and quality. Just what the ulti mate effects are is still a matter of controversy. Undoubtedly, whenever hand work is changed to machine work in a given field of endeavor, there occurs at first a serious displacement of existing employment conditions. As a rule the use of machinery involves the employ ment of fewer persons, and in many instances it also does away with the need for highly skilled labor. On the other hand, as machinery becomes gradually adopted in a given field, the result fre quently, if not always, is a widening of this field, and, therefore, eventually need for larger numbers of workmen. Then, too, as machinery is gradually developed and becomes more complicated, there again arises a need for more skilled labor.
In the same manner, the individual workman is affected. The use of ma chinery undoubtedly tends, in many in stances, towards mere routine labor. One and the same process frequently is repeated over and over again. Natur ally, this requires a lower grade of men tality in the laborer than was needed when a large number of diversified processes had to be performed by one and the same individual. On the other hand, the laborer frequently is enabled by the use of machinery to increase his earnings. It may, therefore, be said that while the use of machinery is at times apt to have a disadvantageous influence on the laborers' mentality, it is just as apt to greatly improve his material com forts.
There is no doubt that the use of ma chinery instead of hand work has resulted in vastly increased output. Indeed, in many instances, the invention of a given piece of machinery was more or less forced by the absolute necessity to increase output, either in order to meet increased demand, or else in order to reduce costs.
It is claimed by many that the quality of machine products is much lower than that of similar products produced by hand work. While this is without doubt true in many instances, it is, to a certain extent, offset by the greater uniformity. Then, too, it must be remembered that many products which now supply some of the most important needs of our daily life were not available until machines had been invented by means of which they could be produced.
The various kinds of machinery which are used today in civilized countries are so numerous that even a condensed list is impossible. Hardly any human en deavor today is carried on without the use of some kind of machinery. Most machinery is driven by power other than human. Animal, steam, electric and water power all are employed in connec tion with the use of machinery.
Agricultural Implements.—This term is commonly used to designate all tools, machinery, and other implements em ployed in the manifold processes con nected with farming. The most ancient agricultural implements were, without doubt, restricted to those which re quired human strength only. All agri cultural work for many centuries used to be done by the use of flails, hoes, rakes, scythes, sickles, and spades. All of these were worked by hand. When animal power became available to do some of the work which human beings had formerly done, there appeared primi tive harrows and plows. Not until more comparatively modern times were other forms of farming implements and ma chinery invented and developed. During the nineteenth century especially, this development made vast progress. In deed, many of the most useful pieces of farming machinery were not invented until then. Today, practically every operation required in farming is per formed by means of some machine ar implement. Just as is the case with machinery used in fields of human en deavor other than farming, electric, steam, water, wind, and other artificial forms of power are gradually supplant ing hand and animal power. The soil now is prepared for planting by specially constructed plows, harrows, fertilizing machines, and other cultivators. Plant ing is done by means of mechanical planters and seeders. Crops are har vested by means of mechanical hay rakes, hay forks, mowers, reapers, and a large variety of other harvesting im plements, each adapted for its special use. After the crops have been gath ered, mechanical threshing machines, fanning mills, hullers, huskers, shellers, and other seed separators are employed.