Executive Civil Government.—The entire admini stration is under the direction of two councils, attached to the person of the emperor, the Nei-ko and Kitni-ke-tchou. The first is charged with the preparation of plans, and the despatch of current business. Its duty is, according to the official book, to put in order, and to make manifest the thoughts and designs of the imperial will, and to regulate the forms of administrative decrees.' It may be regarded in some measure as the secretariat of the empire. The second council, named Kiun - ko - tchou,' deliberates with the emperor concerning political affairs. In the Nei-ko, or Interior Council Chamber, are four chief councillors, two of them Tartars and two Chinese, who bear the titles of Choung-thaug and Ko-laou. The Tartar minister presides.
Leo-Poe is the general appellation for the six civil and criminal tribunals of China. The first of these, properly termed Loo-Poo, has four depart ments for the administration of the provinces ; the second, named Hoo-Poo, takes charge of the imperial revenues ; the third board is named Lee poo ; Ping-poo-war is the fourth ; King-Poo, the criminal department ; Kung-Poo, or public works, being the fifth and sixth.
The provinces of the country are each under a governor, or, where two provinces are united, a governor-general. Every province is divided into a certain number of districts, called Fu,' Ting," Chow," Heen.' A Fu' is a large portion or department of a province under the general control of a civil officer, immediately subordinate to the head of the provincial govern ment. A Ting,' a smaller division than, and sometimes a portion of, a Fu ; when separate, it is governed as a Fu, and called a Chub-le.' A Chow' is similar to a Ting, as also a Heen, but each is a smaller division. Each Fu, Ting, Chow, or Heen has one or more towns or walled cities under its guidance, one of which takes its name and rank as Kwang-Chow-Fn ' and ' Shang-Hae Heen,' which latter, although of that subordinate rank, is the largest maritime city in the empire, and the greatest resort of the native ships or junks. But with all these, there has, besides, always re mained a powerful and vivacious spark that the Tartar government has never been able to extir pate; and secret societies have been formed all over tho empire, the members of which have seen with impatience the Manchu domination, and cherish the idea of overthrowing it, to obtain a national government.
Titles.—Also, there are five orders of nobility, the koung, heow, paak, tze, and nan, which cor respond to the duke, marquis, earl, baron, and baronet of Britain. Each of these has classes.
The Kee-Too-Wye is a lower grade, and the Wan Kee-Wye a still lower. Other grades of rank are arranged as Chung or Tsung-deputy. Hereditary titles only exist for the imperial family and for the descendants of Confucius, who are still very numerous in the province of Shang-tung. Of the twelve orders of the Imperial nobility of China, tsinw'n is the first, kiui-wang the second, beileh third, beitseh fourth, chin kwoh kung fifth, f-kwoh kung sixth. To the hereditary titles which the relations of the emperor enjoy, there are attached certain prerogatives, as well as a very modest allow ance, the right of wearing a rod or yellow girdle, of putting a plume of peacock's feathers in their cape, and of having six, eight, or twelve bearers to their palanquins. They cannot, more than any other citizen, pretend to any public office, without having previously taken their literary degree at Pekin and Moukden, the capital of Manchuria. Many of these nobles are to be seen living in idle ness and penury on their small pensions, and having no other proof to show of their illustrious origin than the red or yellow girdle. A private tribunal, however, is charged to govern them and superintend their conduct.
The first civil and military mandarins who have distinguished themselves in the administration or in war, receive the titles of koung, heow, paak or phy, tze, and nan. All the officers, civil and military, of the Chinese Empire are divided into nine orders, khiou-ping, distinguished one from the other by certain buttons, or rather balls, of the size of a pigeon's egg, which are worn above the official cap. This distinctive ball is of plain red coral for the first order, of carved coral for the second, of a translucent deep blue stone for the third, of palo blue for the fourth, crystal for the fifth, of some opaque white stone for the sixth, and for the seventh, eighth, and ninth, of gilt and wrought copper. Every order is subdivided into two classes, the one active and official, the other supernumerary ; but this makes no difference in the balls. All the official personages comprised in these nine orders are designated by the generic term of kouang-fou. The term mandarin was invented by the first Europeans who visited the country, and is probably derived from the Portu guese word mandar,' to command. The people are all partial to honours, and ornamental arches are raised to men and women who distinguish themselves.