In order to get a distinct general conception of the Chinese philosophical literature, two epochs must be specially kept in mind. The first began with Confucius (Kung-tsze), who was born B.C. 551, and ended with Mencius (Mang-tsze), who died about B.C. 317. The second began with Chow-leen-ke or Choo-tsze, who commenced his labours about A.D. 1034, and ended with Choo-ke or Choo-tsze, who died in A.D. 1200. The first lasted for seven generations. It was by an interval of thirteen hundred years from the second, which lasted for five generations. Both were periods of revival of ancient learning and of further development. Both embraced several celebrated philosophers besides those mentioned, but in each case it was the originator and closer of the epoch who became most celebrated. The writers of the second epoch are often mentioned as the philosophers of the Lung dynasty ; which latter was established in A.D. 960, about 70 years before Choo-tsze's labours began, and continued in possession of the sovereignty till A.D. 1271, about 70 years after Choo-tsze's labours closed. Confucius, though his name in the west became identified with Chinese learning, was by no means its originator. Authentic, though not full records, embodying ethical and political doctrines, extended back to B.C. 2357, or to about eighteen hundred years before Confucius ; while the Chinese philo sophy originated with Fuh-he,who lived, according to tradition, some twenty-three generations before the exact chronological era, which latter took place B.C. 2637 with the institution of the national cycle of sixty years. Allowing thirty years to a generation, this would place Fuh-he about B.C. 3327. It was he who substituted writing for the knotted strings that had previously formed the only means of record ; and it was he who first established marriages and separate families. To him are also ascribed some civilisation labours of lesser but still great importance,—the division of the day into twelve She-shin, or watches, of two hours each. Fuh-he is therefore the founder of Chinese civilisation generally. But he is perhaps best known as the originator of the natural philo sophy, and in particular as the author of the ' Eight Diagrams.' He constructed these after a careful and extensive survey of nature and its varied phenomena, as exhibited in the de partments which we call astronomy, meteorology, physical geography, and natural history and after reflection on his own nature, physical and mental, and on the nature of men generally, as manifested in the events of the social life around him. The Eight Diagrams consist alternately of whole and broken lines. They have never been read, but they have not the less been made the basis of an ancient system of philosophy and divination. Fuh-he's diagrams, as re-arranged, together with the short explications of the first monarch of the Chow dynasty and his son, form the basis or text of the first of the Chinese Sacred Books, the Yih-king. After an interval of six centuries, Confucius edited the Yih-king, and appended those annotations which have given the work its subsequent value. What philosophical views may have been attached to the Yih-king of Wan-wang and Chou-kung by the contem poraries of Confucius, we know not. That work, together with the other three works edited or compiled by Confucius, viz. the Shu-king books and the Le-ke, constitute the whole of the ancient literature of China which has come down to posterity, and who have it only, as it was explained, arranged or modified in passing through his hands. It is well known that he expressly repudiated portions of it, as containing doctrines adverse to the views which he held and strove to diffuse. The names only of some cele brated ancient books, one dating from the times of Fuh-he himself, have been preserved. It is these circumstances which constitute the labours of Confucius the commencement of a distinct literary epoch. Apart' from the labours of Confucius himself, the permanent literary results of this, the first of the two great epochs to which attention has been directed, are contained in the collection of works called the Four Books, com posed by different members of the school which he founded. The last contains a record of the ethical and political teachings of Mencius (Mang tsze), who died about B.C. 317, and closed the first epoch.
Choo-tsze was the originator of the second epoch of philosophical development. To him is ascribed the merit of having revived that distinct knowledge of the greatest truths, which had been lost to the world for the thirteen centuries that had elapsed after the death of Mencius ; and he regained that knowledge by the independent efforts of his own mind, unaided by any master. Only two of his works have been preserved, the Tea-heih-too-shwo and the Tung-shat. He died in A.D. 1200 • and in A.D. 1241 an imperial re script ordered his tablet, with those of four of his immediate predecessors whose works he had annotated, to be placed in the temple of Con fucius, which is to be found in every district city throughout the empire. From that time his views of philosophy, morality, and politics have been supreme in China. His commentaries on the Yih-king and the Four Books are learnt by heart by millions of Chinese, with the text of these works. The public service examinations cannot be passed unless this be done.
The fact is, however, that though the authors of the first and second epochs, Confucius himself included, professed to teach only what was con tained in pre-existing sacred books, and though they possibly themselves they did only teach what was virtually contained in such pre-existing books, they nevertheless did, in each case, originate some entirely new views and doctrines.
The Yuen dynasty, which succeeded the Sungh in A.D. 1271, were Mongols, immediate descend ants of Chengiz Khan, who adopted Chinese civilisation only in a very slight degree, and were consequently soon expelled again. Choo-Yuen
Chaug, the first emperor of the native dynasty, the Ming, which succeeded them in A.D. 1368, though a promoter of literature, was himself illiterate, having been a servant in a monastery. But the third sovereign of the line, who began to reign A.D. 1403, had a splendid library formed, and several encyclopmdiac works compiled. lie pub lished an edition of the Sacred Books, which is known by the affix to their title of Tatreuen,' in full completeness.
Religion.-3Inhoinedanian was introduced by an Arab, Wos-Kassin, said to have been Mahomed's maternal uncle ; but the Mahomedans are neither zealous in the propagation of their doctrines, nor over strict in the observances of their religion. They are perpetually rising against the Govern ment. In 1863 those living in the north went into open revolt, and spread a ruin and devastation not yet (1882) remedied.
Christianity penetrated into China as early as the 5th and Gth centuries ; in the 13th it was very flourishing, and there existed at Pekin an archbishop with four suffragans. The general who conquered Southern China is stated to have been a Nestorian Christian, and to have built a church at Nankin for those of his own faith. Marco Polo, a Christian, was in high favour. We learn from the Mahomedan travellers, who visited China as early as A.D. 850, that when Canton was taken and sacked in A.D. 877 by a rebel army, as many as 120,000 Mahomedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees perished in the sack (Priusep's Tibet, Tartary, and Mongolia, p. 10). The Chinese have also books of Christian doctrine, composed by ancient missionaries, and which, even in a purely literary point of view, are much esteemed in the empire. The Chinese designate the Christian religion as the religion of the Lord of heaven (Huc, i. xv. p.68). A French missionary, who had been very much in the interior of China, stated the total number of native Christians at 500,000. M. Huc's estimate is 800,000, scattered over all China proper in small communities. They differ from their own countrymen in many of those social and domestic customs and in all those mental peculiarities which constitute the special nationality of the Chinaman. Dr.Knowlion has stated that if the present ratio of conversions goes on as it has for some years back, ' by the year 1900 the native Christians in China will number over two millions !' (Hue, Chinese Empire, i. p. 16). A popular uprising began in 1848. It originated in 1830 in the teachings of Mr. Roberts, an American missionary, and those of an earnest Chinese disciple. It became blended with the national struggle of the Tae-ping, or the votaries of the divine kingdom of eternal peace.' Accord ing to the writings of Hung, once a schoolmaster, but afterwards time ' Heavenly Prince' and acknowledged head, the convert, on coming to baptism, pronounced a solemn vow to take the belief in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost for his rule of life, and to dedicate this life to God, in love to the brethren ; while visits to the tombs of ancestors were enjoined, in gratitude for the release Of their immortal souls from this trouble some life, and to renew the vow of life-long devotion to the cause of God and the brethren. Tho Bible was the word of God, the Ten Com mandments the moral law, and opium-smoking a sin equal to adultery (Bunsen, God in Hist. i. p. 272). Chevalier Bunsen was of opinion that the Chinese worship of the dead is the sole connecting link between them and a future state. In their disbelief of immortality and of God, Quinet doubts if they have, in the past 5000 years, lived a single day (Bunsen, God in Kist. i. pp. 265-7). But the nation believe in spirits or disembodied beings, and Chinese officials address letters to their deities, which they despatch in a fire sacrifice. Their philosophies are noticed above. Throughout China some vague idea is entertained by the people of the existence of one great being, whom they usually designate as Shang-ti, the Supreme Ruler, the Supreme Sovereign, or whom they call Tien, Heaven ; and believe that he, by a fixed destiny, controls all affairs ; and as such, Tien is taken to be an appellation of the godhead of men. The learned among the Chinese speak of him, as he is represented in their most ancient classics, as having no form, nor sound, nor savour, nor tangibility ; and to their minds he appears divested of all distinct personality. The spiritual ministers of heaven they call Shin, expansive spirits, or Shin-ming, illustrious spi ritual beings. They divide them into two large classes, of which one is the Tien-shin, or heavenly. But the whole number of these spirits are depen dent upon, and ruled by, Tien, or the Supreme Ruler of heaven. They rarely build any temple for the worship of Shang-ti. Still the people universally pay to Heaven, or to Heaven's Lord, a sort of homage daily. Every Chinese house has a lantern suspended outside the street door, and directly over the middle of the doorway, which they call Tien kung-tang, Heaven's Lord's lantern, or simply Tien-tang, Heaven's lantern. These lanterns are all lighted up, and incense is burnt for him during a short time every evening. Also, one day in every year they profess to devote to his honour, the ninth day of their first month, which they call his birthday ! Then they have plays acted to please hiin They have an idol. Choo-tai-tsoo, the founder of the Ming dynasty, ordered the manufacture of a metallic figure of a man, 15 inches high, attired as a Taoist priest. This is carried in procession on the installation of every Chinese emperor. Three fingers of the left hand are placed in its mouth ; and in the hand is a tablet inscribed, Fast for three days.' The inferior state deities are Kwan-le, a distinguished general, tho protector of the peace, who is now their Foci of war.