Farther to the south-east, the central range becomes broken by the precipitous gorge of the Sutlej (the classic Ilesudrus), which, rising in the sacred lakes of Rakas Tal and Manasarowara on the southern side of the Tibetan Kailas, takes a north westerly course for 280 miles, till, joined by the waters of the Spiti river, it turns and cleaves through . the two outer ranges, emerging on the plains of India at Hopar, after a course of 560 miles. The ' junction of the Sutlej and Spiti rivers is marked ' by the Lio Porgyul peak, which rises sheer 22,183 feet high from the edge of the two streams, I 13,000 feet below its summit. Further to the S. E., numerous passes lead from British territory over the central range into Miks. The Niti pass (16,676 feet) leads across it to Khotan, ' by way of Tolling, Gartokh, Itudokh, Noh, and IKiria, and is the best and easiest route between ' Eastern Turkestan and India. Eastward of this point, the central range is occupied by the Native States of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. On its northern side the range has enormous glaciers, which drain into the Tsan-pu river ; while its southern slopes give rise to many large rivers, which burst through the southern range, and eventually discharge their waters into the Ganges or Brahmaputra. The source of the Ganges lies a few miles beyond Gangotri ; and the Kali, Karnali, Narayani, Buri Gandak, Tirsuli Gandak, Bhutia Kosi, Arun, all flow through Nepal. To the east of the Mariam-la pass, only three Euro peans have ever crossed the central range. An imposing view of the long line of glaciers and peaks of the central range was obtained by Dr. ]looker from the Donkia-]a pass in Sikkim. Two of the most remarkable of the inland lakes are the Palti and Chomtodong. The former (14,700 feet above the sea) is about twenty miles Ilong and sixteen broad, without an outlet. This !hake is situated north of the Arun basin, and, 1 the Paid lake, is encircled by spurs from the !central range. The Palti or Yam-dok-cho lake is also without an outlet, and is ring-shaped ; it is supposed to be about 45 miles in circum iference. An island in its centre rises into rounded hills from 2000 to 3000 feet high.
The southern range, at its north - western extremity, appears to spring from the southern most point of the Pir Panjal range. At its outset it is pierced by the waters of the Chenab, the main stream of which rises in Lahul far to the south-east, under the name of Chandra-bhaga, and for 180 miles drains the south-western and north-eastern slopes of time central and southern ranges respectively. The peaks of the southern range gradually increase in height from 1300 to 20,000 feet, and its outer slopes are washed by the Ravi and Beas, the feeders of which rise on the southern side of the culminating range. Passing the Sutlej, the road up the gorge of which is connected with Simla by the great Hindustan and Tibet road, we meet the Bhagirathi, Alak nanda, and a variety of rivers, which rise in the space between the two southern ranges.
The western terminal portion of the Himalaya chain comprises a number of great ranges, which are commonly known as the Mustagh or Kara Peaks.—Some of the peaks on the Kara-korum range, along which runs the boundary between Ladakh and Yarkand, are very high, the highest being 28,278 feet above the sea. This mountain is called K. 2, and towers above all the surrounding ranges, being probably the second highest in the world. The heights to the south of the Sutlej range from 20,103 feet to 25,749 feet, and the heights of the passes vary from 16,570 feet to 18,331 feet. In the Western Himalaya the snow
limit ranges are from 17,500 to 20,106 feet. The highest peaks of the Western Himalaya are,— Nanda Devi or Jawahir, 25,749 feet ; Gyu peak, 24,764 feet ; Mono Mangli, 23,900 feet ; Porgyal, 22,700 feet.
The Giant's Peak and the Eastern Dal-la are occasionally called Gemini by residents of Assam who have seen the Himalaya panorama from Nanklau in the Khassya Hills.
Eastern Dal-la, lat. 27° 52' 1" N., long. 92° 38' 6" E., in Bhutan, in the immediate vicinity of the Giant's Peak top of the peak, is 21,435 feet accord ing to Herm. Schl., and 21,476 feet, Pemberton.
A line of high snow peaks can be traced running nearly parallel to the plains of India, and extending from the places of passage of the Indus on the west and Brahmaputra on the east. These snowy peaks are separated from each other by deep ravines, along which flow large and rapid rivers. Every pre-eminent elevation is not, how ever, so much a peak as a cluster of peaks, springing from a huge sustaining and connected base. Between lat. 27° 16' 23" and 31° 6' 8" N., and long. 78° 32' 32" and 89° 18' 43" E., are seventy-nine peaks, ranging from 14,518 feet, to that of Mount Everest, 29,002 feet above the sea. The Pir Panjal, a great snow-clad range, shuts in the valley of Kashmir on the south. With that exception, the ranges covered with perpetual snow are first met with on the southern slope of the great Indo-Tibetan table-land, along a line between 80 and 90 miles from the foot of the outer mountains, and 20 or 30 miles south of the Indian watershed ; and from this line north ward snowy peaks abound everywhere over the korum, Ladakh, Zanskar or Baralacha, and Pir Panjal, all of which have a N.W. to S.E. direction. The Bamlaelma separates the Indus river from its first aflluents, as the Eastern Himalaya separates the Tsan-pu from the Ganges. Tho average elevation of Kashmir valley is between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea ; I lummuk Mount, 13,000 feet ; Pir Panjal, 15,000 feet ; average of the valley of Indus (north of Kaslunir valley), 6000 to 7000 feet.
Major Cunningham gave the following summary of the information he collected regarding the great mountain chains in the north of the Panjab summit of the table-land. The average elevation of the crest of the Indian watershed, between the points where the Indus and Brahmaputra cross it (1500 miles), probably exceeds 18,000 feet. The heights of the following peaks are given by Mr. Trelawney Saunders in Geog. Mag., July -1877 :— Watershed.—The. Himalayan watershed lies at a very considerable distance to the north of the great Himalayan peaks, which, from the side of Hindustan, seem to form the watershed. The greater part of the giant peaks, which rise to an elevation of 25,000 to 29,002 feet, are situated not on' the central axis but to the south of it. Viewed from a distance of about 150 miles, these mountains present a long line of snow-white pinnacles, which on a nearer approach are seen towering above the dark line of lower but still lofty mountains. The steep face is toward the plain, and to the north the chain supports the lofty table-land of Tibet. Deep narrow valleys, separated by ranges running either parallel or at right angles with the main ridge, contain the numerous sources of the rivers flowing into the Ganges, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra.