The subversion of the Roman power formed a new xra in the annals of mankind. The barbarians who over ran Gaul and Spain and Italy, considered their conquests as property in common, in which every one had a share, as every one had contributed to acquire them. But as we arc ignorant of the principles by which they divided the land, it is natural to conjecture, that each obtained a share in proportion to his merits or services, which would entail an obligation on his posterity to contribute towards the public defence in the ratio of the extent or value of his possessions. In every subdivision of property, the same condition would be stipulated or implied, and mi litary service would eventually become the tenure by which occupiers held their lands. From this, or a pro gress similar to this, we may reasonably deduce the ori gin of the FEUDAL SYSTEM, which is certainly founded more on military than on civil principles. But the max ims of feudal policy, though calculated f.r defence against foreign _enemies, were hostile to the establish ment of standing armies ; and during this period, the wars in Europe were desultory and indecisive. The barons enjoyed unlimited authority over their vassals, and they were constantly making incursions on the do mains of their neighbours, more frequently to gratify revenge than to acquire dominion or renown. Military glory was less courted in that age than in any other re corded in history ; and for several centuries a series of unimportant events characterised the nations of Europe.
In the eleventh century, the crusades roused the minds of men, and called forth the whole energy of Europe. Mighty armies were carried to Asia, to deliver the Holy Land from the dominion of infidels. Many sanguinary battles distinguished the combatants. But the armies of both sides were ignorant of the advantages of regu larity and discipline, and were only a tumultuous mass, impelled by fanaticism to deeds of heroic valour. For two hundred years the crusades occupied the attention of Europe ; but they were followed by some moral and political effects, which compensated the West, in no small degree, for the blood and treasure lavished in the East ; and to these disgraceful expeditions we owe the dawn of science and literature.
During the lengthened and vehement struggles be tween France and England, the spirit of the feudal sys tem retarded the improvement of the military art; and until the reign of Charles VII. of France, there had been no standing army in Europe since the fall of the West ern Empire. But Charles accomplished that which his predecessors dared not attempt ; and at the close of the war with England, retained 9000 cavalry and 16,000 in fantry. He appropriated funds for the paymant of these troops, and appointed officers who commanded and dis ciplined them. The nobility entered into this service as more honourable than the feudal militia, and it became a strong tie to unite them to the interests of their so vereign.
The establishment of the first standing army in Eu rope could not fail to produce important consequences to society, as well as to occasion a revolution in the mili tary system of the times. A national force, at the com mand of the sovereign, was a new and powerful engine to repress the turbulence of the feudal aristocracy, and to strengthen the authority of the crown. The kings of France were enabled to carry on foreign operations with more vigour, and to greater extent, than formerly; and the expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy, confirmed the
superiority and the reputation of a standing army. With the inconsiderable force of 20,000 men, he over-ran Italy. The effect was such as to render a change in the mili tary system of Europe necessary. Those who had to contend with France were obliged to adopt a similar establishment, and mercenary troops were introduced by all the powerful kingdoms on the continent, and became tte only force that was trusted or employed. The Ger man princes followed the example of France, and their troops soon vied with those of that nation in discipline and valour. The Spaniards improved upon the plan, and formed that famous body of infantry, which, during a century and a half, was the terror and admiration of Eu rope. The profession of a soldier was now distinct and separate from that of every other occupation ; and in peace, he was devoted to exercise ; in war, to the prac tical application of the instruction he had received ; and strict discipline and subordination were gradually intro duced into the armies of Europe.
The ambition of the rival monarchs of France and Ger many, Francis I. and Charles V., which so long disturb ed the tranquillity of Europe, tended to improve the state of the army, by rendering the service the road to hon ourable distinction ; and in the succeeding age, the war of the succession, the campaigns of Marlborough and of Frederick, reduced the organization, the exercise and discipline of troops, and the whole art of war, to rules, determinate and scientific. But the most perfect mili tary system of any age, and the most wonderful for its effects and consequences, is certainly that of the Im perial Republic, as established by the Code de la Con scrilition ; and it may be proper to explain the elements, and to unfold the principles of this mighty engine, which now threaten to overwhelm civilized society.
France is divided into about thirty military govern ments, subject to a general of division and his staff, to which commissaries are attached as executive officers, The civil division consists of 122 departments, which arc divided into districts, the districts into cantons, the can tons into municipalities, which amount to about 55,000. Each department is governed by a prefect and his coun cil ; the district by a subprefect and his council ; the municipalities are under the supervision of an adminis tration, with a president at the head ; and for every divi sion of 5000 souls, there is a mayor, a commissary of police, and two officers of the government. These se veral authorities are in strict subordination to each other, and at the controul of the prefects and subprefects, who are charged with a heavy responsibility as to the milita ry levies. All Frenchmen, by law, between the age of twenty and twenty-five, are liable to the conscription, and are thrown into five classes, from which the lists for ballot arc taken by the municipal administration. These lists are transmitted to the prefects, who send them to the minister for war ; and when they are adjusted, the subprefect proceeds to the drawing of the quota of the district by lot. The first division are called conscripts for actual service ; the second, the reserve ; the third, supplementary. The conscripts are marched in bodies of 100 each to the different depots, where they are sup plied with arms and clothing; and trained and exercis ed in a manner that inures them to the severest hard ships. They are then engrafted in the pre-existing army.