On the expulsion of the French the Ottoman Porte effectually urged its claim to sovereignty, and the accession of the Albanian soldier Mo hammed 'Ali to the pashalic in 1805 imparted a galvanic prosperity to Egypt by the merciless destruction of the turbulent Mamelukes (whom a disastrous British expedition in 1807 vainly sought to restore), the formation of a regular army, the increase of security, the improvement' of the irrigation and the introduction of the elements of European civilization. In 1816 Mohammed 'Ali reduced part of Arabia, brought it under his sway by the generalship of his son, Ibrahim; in 1820 he annexed Nubia and part of the Sudan; and from 1821 to 1828 his troops, under Ibrahim, occupied various points in the Morea and Crete, to aid the Turks in their war with the insurgent Greeks. The Egyptian fleet was annihilated at Navarino, and Ibrahim remained in the Morea till forced to evacuate by the French army, under Maison, in 1828. In 1831 Ibrahim began the conquest of Syria, and in the following year totally routed the Ottoman army at Koniya, after which the Porte ceded Syria to Mohammed 'Ali on condition of tribute. War breaking out again, the victory of Nisib in 1839 would per haps have elevated him to the throne of Con stantinople; but the quadruple alliance in 1840, the fall of Saint Jean d'Acre to the British and the consequent evacuation of Syria, compelled him to limit his ambition to the pashalic of Egypt. In 1848 Mohammed 'Ali became im becile (he died in 1849), and his son Ibrahim sat on his throne for two months, when he died, and 'Abbas Pasha, Mohammed Ali's grandson, succeeded him, and was succeeded in turn (1854) by Sa'id Pasha, youngest son of Mohammed 'Ali. M. de Lesseps then obtained the co-operation, hitherto withheld, of the Egyptian government in his scheme of the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869. Sa'id was succeeded (1863) by his nephew, Ismail, son of Ibrahim, who by a firman purchased from the Sultan (1866) the hereditary title of Khedive. He obtained the hereditary title of Khedive to the throne of Egypt, direct from father to son, instead of descending, according to Turlcish law, to the eldest male of the fam ily, and in 1872 the Sultan granted to the Khe dive the rights (withdrawn in 1879) of con cluding treaties and of maintaining an army, and virtually gave him sovereign powers. Thus secure on an hereditary throne, Ismail began a series of vast internal reforms, built roads, bridges, lighthouses, railways and telegraphs, reorganized the postal service, improved the harbors at Suez, Port Sa'id and Alexandria, supported education, and introduced mixed courts , of law. Extending his dominions southward, he annexed Dar-Fiir in 1874, and in that and the following year further conquests were made. The condition of die finances led to the establishment of "dual control° by Great Britain and France, and in 1879 Ismail was forced to abdicate under pressure of the Brit ish and French govertnnents, and was replaced by his son, Tewfik. His position was soon threatened by the so-called National party with Arabi Pasha -at its head, who aimed at his depo sition and at the abolition of European inter vention. In May 1882, a rising took place in Alexandria, when many Europeans were killed and their houses pillaged. The Khedive fled from Cairo, where Arabi remained autocrat. The French refusing to interfere, Great Britain determined to act, and on 11 July a British fleet bombarded the forts at Alexandria, caus ing the rebels to retreat. In August a force under Sir Garnet (aftervvard Lord) Wolseley landed at Ismailia, and on 13 Septeinber Arabi's forces were totally defeated at Tei-el-Kebir and the rebellion crushed, Arabi and his asso ciates being banished. Before this a rebellion
against Egyptian rule had broken out in the Sudan under the leadership of Mohammed Ahmed, who professed to be the Mandi or divinely-sent Mohammedan conqueror. His followers soon became numerous, defeated, Egyptian troops that opposed them, and threat ened the existence of all the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan. In 1g83 they annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks Pasha near El Obeid in Kordofan, and in 1884 Osman Digna, as representing the Mandi, defeated another force under Baker Pasha near Suakirn. British troops were now dispatched to Sualdm, and at El Teb and Tamai severe defeats were inflicted on the Arabs by General Graham. Meantime General Gordon had been sent to Khartum to withdraw the garrisons from the Sudan, but he was shut up in the town for nearly a year, and perished before the relief expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley could reach him (January 1885). The Sudan was then given up, and the southern boundary of the Egyptian dominions fixed at Wady-Halfa.
In 1892 Tewfik died, and was succeeded by his son, Abbas Hilmi, who is the seventh vice roy and third khedive of Egypt In 1896 an Anglo-Egyptian expedition for the reconquest of the lost provinces was dispatched under Sir Herbert (aftenvard Lord) Kitchener. Dongola was soon occupied. Abu Hamed was captured in the following year, and (8 April 1898), the insurgents were defeated in a battle near the confluence of the Atbara. Finally (2 Sept. 1898) the forces of the Khalifa, as the Mandi's successor was called, were defeated with great slaughter at Omdurman, near Khartum. The territory thus reconquered was placed under a governor-general, and was rapidly organized. A subsequent attempt of France to occupy Fashoda and enforce a claim to the Bahr-el Ghazal "Blue River° Valley led to some friction with Great Britain.
Egypt During the European War.-- Owing to the entrance of Turkey into the war on the side of the Central Powers, and to the adhesion of the khedive to the Icing's enemies, a British protectorate was declared and the Khedive Abbas Pasha deposed on 18 Dec. 1914. Prince Hussein Kann!, the eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed 'Ali, a former viceroy of Egypt, was appointed in his stead, under the title of Sultan of Egypt. Two un successful attempts at his assassination have been made (8 April and 9 July 1915). Sir Ar thur McMahon was appointed British high com missioner. Turkish armies under German leader ship have made successive attempts to attack the Suez Canal as preliminaries to an invasion of Egypt. The most dangerous of these incur sions were: (1) On 2 Feb. 1915 the Turks at tempted to cross near Toussoum, 35 miles north of Suez; (2) on 23 April 1916 an attempt was made at the Quatia Oasis, 25 miles east of the canal, on the road to El Kastara; (3) the most formidable effort was made on 4 Aug. 1916 when 14,000 Turks attacked the British position near Romani, 22 miles east of Port Said and just north of Katia, on a front of seven or eigbt miles. The British troops, under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, and com posed mainly of Australians and New Zealand ers, succeeded by a strategic retirement in in volving the Turks in the sand-dunes, and then fell upon their rear, and succeeded in taking 2,500 unwounded Turkish and German prison ers. See WAR, EUROPEAN. See also ALEXAN