Geology and Granite, eocene limestone and sandstone are the principal rock formations found in Egypt. But in the Nile Valley from North Latitude to the Fayum, sandstone predominates. At Syene, the southern extremity of Egypt proper, granite predomi nates. Its quarries have supplied the materials for the obelisks and many colossal statues of Ancient Egypt. A great extent of the country is covered with moving sands; the soil bordering the Nile, owing to the encroachment of the shifting sands of the desert, consists of an argil laceous earth or loam, more or less mixed with sand. This sedimentary deposit shows no trace of stratification. In addition to those already mentioned, there are various other minerals, which were employed in architecture, sculpture, etc. These include syenite, basalt, alabaster, breccia and porphyry Among other valuable products of Ancient Egypt were emeralds, gold from the mines in Upper Egypt, iron from the desert plains of Nubia and natron from the lakes in the Oasis of Ammon (hence named Am monia, Latin sal-ammoniacum). Bitumen, salt and sulphur are also among the minerals of Egypt.
Egypt in modern times has been held as a suzerain of Turkey under the rule of a Khedive. In 1879 it came under the joint control of Great Britain and France as security for the European bondholders. During the rebellion organized by Arabi Pasha in 1882 France refused to inter vene and after his defeat and the restoration of the Khedive's authority the dual control came to an end and the government of the country was effectively controlled by the British authori ties, but still under Turkish suzerainty. Since the beginning of the British occupation great reforms have been carried through in every department of the public service; the finances have been placed on a sound basis; extensive public works have been carried through; the Sudan (q.v.) has been reconquered and the fear of incursions from the south brought to an end.
In 1883 an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creating a number of representative institutions whose functions were almost wholly consultative. In July 1913 this law was repealed by an act bringing into operation a legislative assembly consisting of 85 members, 66 of whom are elective and in which the ministers sit. Provincial councils have been organized with powers of regulation over markets, local admin istration and elementary vernacular education and trade schools.
Inatice.—The administration of Egyptian justice is extremely complicated. There are four classes of courts: (1) The mehkemmehs, or Mohammedan courts, conducted according to the precepts of the Koran and the principles of the Mohammedan religion, and retaining jurisdiction in matters of personal law only.
(2) The so-called native tribunals, composed of 90 summary tribunals, 8 central tribunals and a court of appeals at Cairo. These deal with crimes committed by natives and civil actions between natives. The most recent addition in this category has been the creation of village or cantonal courts, having powers analogous to those possessed by English justice of peace courts. (3) The consular courts, which deal with civil cases between foreigners of the same nationality and also try criminal cases in which the accused are foreigners not within the jurisdiction of the mixed tribunals. (4) The mixed tribunals, dating from 1876, which have jurisdiction in all matters civil and commercial between natives and foreigners or between for eigners of different nationalities. These courts arc admittedly successful. A code of laws has been published for the greater systemization of native jurisprudence.
Education.—The chief seat of Koranic edu cation is the famous University of El Azhar, founded by Saladin about 1170 and still em ploying the same methods of instruction that were originally in use. The faculty., numbered in 1918 about 300 moulahs or priests, many having wide reputation for scholarship; the students, some 10,000, are from India, Turkey, Syria, Afghanistan and other Mohammedan countries. There is no regular university or ganization nor arrangement for the endowment of departments or founding of chairs. Anyone who can collect a class is allowed to lecture. Frequently the professors practise law, hold clerkships or are connected with mosques in Cairo. There is no charge for instruction. Three-fourths of the students study theology, though other %logics') and geography, philoso phy and astronomy are also taught. There are also in Cairo eight colleges and professional schools of excellent grade. The Egyptian Min istry of Public Instruction has under its direc tion schools for engineering, medicine, law and a,griculture, technical schools and normal train ing schools for teachers. A military school is tinder the management of the war office. The number of indigenous schools under control of the provincial councils on 31 Dec. 1915 was 3,666, with a total enrolment of 250,575 (225,073 boys). Higher educational institutions under the board of education have an enrolment of 26,662 (20,507 boys, 6,115 girls). Of native Egyptians, according to the census of 1907, 85 per 1,000 males were able to read and write and three per 1,000 females.