ENGLISH LITERATURE. The Norman Conquest made a great change in the develop ment of an English literature, as in all other forms of English life. Conditions were at first most unfavorable: the English language might be used by any who pleased, but the clergy naturally used Latin, and people of any position French, or Anglo-Norman, as it is commonly called. For three centuries, there fore, we do not find in English any striking original work, anything to compare in interest with the Skaldic poetry and the Sagas in Ice land, with the French romances and fabliaux, with the German epic and courtly poetry. Dur ing these centuries, however, we do find in Eng land what is in its way most interesting, namely, a singularly rich representation of the different phases of mediaeval thought. We may con veniently begin with the work connected with the older order of things. The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) was still kept up at Worcester and at Peterborough. Of these the former is preserved only as far as 1079; the latter is a much later work; in 1121 the whole chronicle was rewritten and then carried on to 1154, being something more than a mere set of annals, with a distinct character of its own. After this, beginning in deed before, comes a stately series of Latin chronicles, though in English we find only chronicles in verse. Layamon's 'Brut) (c. 1200, after the Anglo-Norman of Wace, which itself is a paraphrase of Geoffrey of Mon mouth) is most interesting as language, litera ture and legend, giving, among other things, the introduction of King Arthur to English readers. Much later are the chronicles of Robert of Gloucester (c. 1300) and Robert of Brunne (1330). Layamon is hardly as much history as romance. Of this latter almost everything is from French, Scandinavian or Celtic sources: there is little native English either in form or substance. (King Horn) (c. 1250) and (Havelock the Dane' (c. 1275) prob ably go back to Scandinavian originals, though they are still regarded by some as English legend material : more purely national are the stories of 'Bevis of Hampton) (c. 1275) and of (Guy of Warwick' (c. 1300), though the ver sions preserved are probably from Anglo-Nor man originals. Renderings of Continental ro mances are numberless, beginning about 1250 with the Alexander story and going on with the tale of Troy and stories of King Arthur, the Round Table and the Holy Grail, where the material is partly Celtic, giving even some of the legends of Charlemagne, and many minor stories, as (Floris and Blancheflor,) (Amis and Atnilon,> (Sir Tristram.' Somewhat later (1300), and less fully, come versions of the fabliaux, (Dame Siriz,' (Reynard the Fox,' the (Land of Cokayne,' the (Lay of the Ash.) About this time appear the great mediwval col lections of stories, the (Seven Sages' and the (Gesta Romanorum,' which latter, though in Latin, was collected in England. Beside all this epic and narrative material there is a smaller lyric element; oftenest anonymous, like (Sumer is ycumen in) (c. 1250), (Winter wakeneth all my care,' and other love songs, as well as many political songs, among which are the patriotic poems of Lawrence Minot (c. 1325). But generally where it is not narrative, the Middle English poetry is didactic: the so called Proverbs of Alfred, dating from the 12th century and preserved in several versions, may have old material and certainly keep some thing of the old alliterative form, though there is also the Norman element of verse. And as ( the Anglo-Saxon priestly writers used allitera tion in their didactic prose, so now much of the \ religious literature is put into rhyrne, a fashion ? of the Norman. The (Poema Morale' (1200) is a sermon in verse, though now and then with a personal element and there are many other shorter homilies. A common fortn is the clia-* logue; the 'Debate of the Body and the Soul' is known in various forms (1200 and after), the dialogue between (Mary and the Cross,' and others including, in lighter mood from a French source, the (Owl and the Nightingale' (1220), a poem full of popular wisdom in which the gay and the gloomy views of life are cham pioned respectively by the two birds who refer the dispute to Master Nicholas of Guilford, gen erally taken as the author. Less original in
substance are the versions of Scripture of which the (Ormulum,' a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Orm of Lincolnshire (1220) is most important for linguistic reasons, preserved in an autograph copy (probably) with an indi vidual system of phonetic spelling. Versions of Genesis and Exodus (c. 1225) are also to be mentioned, while much later in the north (1320) (Cursor Mundi' reviews the whole extent of history from the creation to the day of judg ment. Lives of the saints there were also, especially of Saints Katherine, Margaret and Juliana, and much devotional poetry, some lyric, like the (Wohung of oure Loverde) (c. 1225), and others, some didactic, like 'Han Meiden heidl (c. 1250). There are also certain larger religious treatises: the (Ancren Riwle' (1225), a prose work of considerable merit, giving the conditions of convent rule, and in the early part of the 14th century, three boolcs on holy living, the (Prick of Conscience,' by Richard Rolle of Hampole; the (Ayenbite of Inwit) by Dan Michael of Northgate and (Handlyng Synne,) Robert of Brunne, the two latter from the French. Also to be noted is the very character istic (Bestiary' (1225), a compilation of the medizval speculation on natural history. Such are the main elements of Middle English litera ture before 1350, although the number of partic ular works is far greater. As is conunon in medianral literature the language is dialectic: no one dialect gains entire primacy till much later, although by this time the East Midland has be come the most important. The second half of the 14th century was a period of great literary activity. England had been long separate from Normandy, and the English language, like the English people, had digested its different ele ments into an organic combination. Literature now becomes more literary. The old forms were now only to sorne degree preserved: Tre visa translated the (Polychronicon) of Higden (c. 1387); Barbour in the north wrote a rhymed chronicle of Bruce (c. 1375). There are num bers of romances from the French. But didac tic or allegoric poetry appears in fonns which though not new have yet a certain original character. There are two great poets: one of name unknown, the author of the (Pearl,' (Gawain and the Green Knight,' (Cleanness,' and (Patience,' the other William Langland (as is most commonly thought), the author of the (Vision Conceniing Piers the Ploughman.' Fine as is their work, it is outshone by the genius of Chaucer, who gathered up and sum marized the spirit of the century and whose in fluence was carried through the century fol lowing by companions or followers of whom the most noteworthy were Gower, Hoccleve and Lydgate. The epoch was also illuminated by Wiclif's great translation of the Bible (c. 1382). Two more popular forms of literature must be mentioned, as beginning lines of literary de velopment still important The ballads of Robin Hood probably go back to this periocl, while many of the Scotch ballads are older. The four cycles of mystery plays, those of Coventry, Chester, Wakefield (Towneley plays) and York, belong to the earlier part of the century. One remarkable book comes in no category, the (Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Mandeville,' widely spread in England, and, though a trans lation, a moniunent of noteworthy prose. The 15th century was a period of bloody civil strife, and in literature a period of great dearth. Lit tle can be mentioned in a summary. Sir Thomas Malory closed the period of the romances of chivalry by the (Morte d'Arthur) (c. 1475), a collection to which he gave organic form and unity. The book was first printed (1585) at the press of Caxton, himself a writer and compiler. Some prose treatises are noteworthy, in reli gion Pecock's (Repressor of Over-much Blam ing of the Clergy' (c. 1450) ; in politics, Fortescue's (Monarchy) (c. 1425), while of lighter interest is the treatise on (Hawking) by Dame Juliana Berners (c. 1425), and the every day (Paston Letters' which belong to literature because they are so interesting.