In the meantime the condition of affairs at home was becoming worse. The Reign of Terror had been followed by an excessive dis solution of manners. Brigandage prevailed in the provinces. Barras, a member of the direc tory, and other high officials had been guilty of 'malversation and private jobbing in the public funds. The returned royalists were intriguing 'for a counter-revolution. The reactionary party had triumphed in the elections'of May 1797, and had succeeded in electing Pichegru president of the Five Hundred, and Barbi Marbois, another royalist, president of the Ancients, and had re placed Letournerre in the directory by Barthe lemy. The majority of the directory, relying on the support of Bonaparte, resolved to anticipate them. Hoche had been recalled with his army ' from the Rhine and from Italy Napoleon sent Augereau, his trustworthy aide, and with these the directory carried out the coup d'Etat of the 18th Fructidor (4 Sept 1797). On that night Augereau introduced 12,000 men into Paris, sur rounded the halls of the councils and arrested the leaders of the reactionary party. The minorities of the two councils, assembled on the invitation of the directors, condemned 53 depu ties to transportation; annulled the elections in 48 departments, and repealed the laws which had -been passed in favor of priests and emi grants; and other violent measures were also taken. Moreau, who had betrayed the intrigues of Pichegru, was himself suspected, and de prived of his command; and Hoche in conse quence received command of the two armies of the Rhine. Soon afterward, however, he was taken suddenly ill (some say he was poisoned) and died.
It seems to have been the purpose of the directory at this time to invade England and with this object in "view "a large army had been gathered together. Napoleon was placed in command of it and though at first he professed to favor the design, he readily saw its impracti cability and finally persuaded the directory to abandon the project. As an alternative he P*9 posed to ruin the English Indian Empire by the conquest of Egypt. His plan was approved; an army consisting of 36,000 men was equipped; and in a fleet commanded by Brueis the ex pedition embarked at Toulon on 19 May 1798. In passing they took Malta from the Knights 9-10 June. The fleet, a few days later set sail for Egypt and reached Alexandria 1 July. Na poleon sent Kleber forward to take that city and then advanced on Cairo but before he reached his destination he encountered a large force of Mamelukes. A long and bloody strug gle ensued known as the battle of the Pyramids, but on 21 July Napoleon emerged victorious. He then entered Cairo in triumph. Napoleon thinking himself secure set about reorganizing the civil and military government of the coun try, among other things establishing on 22 Au gust the Institute of Egypt. But before he had accomplished much in that direction fortune de livered him a terrible blow. While he was thus
occupied in the interior, Nelson, in command of the English fleet, had pursued the French fleet, found it moored in the Bay of Abukir, defeated and nearly destroyed it at the battle of the Nile, 1-2 Aug. 1798. The French were thus cut off from escape. To make matters worse the sultan declared war against Na poleon. In October the people in Cairo revolted and then occurred the fearful massacres when 2,000 people were put to death.. Napoleon, how ever, instead of attempting to return to France resolved to conquer Syria. Early in February 1799 he started with 13,000 men to cross the desert. El-Arish, Gaza and Jaffa quickly suc cumbed and he then laid siege to the city of Acre which was defended by a Turkish garrison under Djezzar Pasha, assisted by the English commodore, Sir Sydney Smith. It was probably at this time that he heard of the disorders in France and the disasters to French armies. This fact combined with his inability to capture the city undoubtedly influenced his decision to return to France. He therefore on 20-21 May, after a 60-day siege, relinquished the attempt to capture the place and returned to Egypt, laying waste the country by fire and having lost over 4,000 men in the expedition. Napoleon re-entered Cairo on 14 June but not a month bad passed before it was announced that a Turkish expedition of 10,000 men was marching against him. On 25 July Napoleon attacked and almost annihilated this force, which the sultan had landed at Abukir. On 22 Aug. 1799 he transferred the eommand of the Egyptian army to Kleber and embarking in a frigate landed at Frejus 9 October after several narrow escapes from capture by the English Mediter ranean cruisers.
While Napoleon was conducting these opera tions in Egypt a second coalition, in violation of the Treaty of Campo Formo, had been formed against France, embracing England, .Russia, Austria and other German states, Naples, Portugal and Turkey. To meet this danger the councils passed the law of the con scription (5 Sept. 1798), and ordered a levy of 200,000 men. The of 1799 was dis astrous to the French Jourdan, who had crossed the Black Forest, was defeated by the Archduke Charles at Stockbach in Swabia on 25 March, and forced to retire beyond the Rhine. Sherer, who was entrusted with the -command of the army of Italy, was defeated at Magnano on 5 April. Moreau, who superseded him, sustained further reverses; and Mac donald, who came to his assistance with the army of Naples, was totally defeated in the battle of the 'Trebbia, 17-19 June. Turin, Ales sandria and Mantua were captured. Joubert, who succeeded Moreau, was defeated and killed at Novi 15 August On the other hand, the Anglo-Russian campaign in Holland failed; and Massena, after a brilliant campaign in Switzerland, defeated the Russians and Aus trians at Zurich on 25 September. This in duced the Emperor Paul I to make peace.