The external policy of Napoleon was not calculated to conciliate the jealousies caused by the extension of French dominion. The inde pendence of the new republics was merely nominal. The island of Elba was occupied and incorporated with France in August 180Z, Pied mont 11 September and Parma in October; while in the same year Piacenza was united to France and an armed intervention changed the government of Switzerland. Holland was also treated as a part of France and received a constitution from Paris. By the Treaty of Luneville the German princes dispossessed by the advance of the French boundary were to be indemnified beyond the Rhine. The process of compensation was not carried out with suffi cient promptitude for Napoleon. By his inter ference, in conjunction with that of the em peror of Russia, the indemnification was effected by the extinction of the two electorates of Cologne and Treves, and the secularization of the ecclesiastical estates. Napoleon on 30 April 1803 sold Louisiana to the United States for $15,000,000.
The discontent excited in England by this aggressive policy made it evident that the peace could not be maintained, and the govern ment refused to evacuate Malta. On 16 May 1803, two days before the declaration of war, an embargo was laid on all French and Dutch vessels in English harbors. Napoleon retali ated for this lawless proceeding by seizing as hostages all English travelers in France and Holland, and General Mortier took military possession of Hanover. Russia and Prussia attempted to intervene, but on terms unac ceptable to France. Spain and Portugal had to purchase their neutrality from France; but as this purchased neutrality placed the former at the disposal of France, England declared war with Spain. Naples was occupied by French troops, and vast preparations were made osten sibly for the invasion of England. While these events were occurring a conspiracy for the overthrow of Bonaparte and the restoration of the Bourbons was discovered in 1804. In this
the British government was implicated. The most distinguished of the conspirators were Cadoudal, Pichegru and Moreau, Cadoudal was executed, Pichegru destroyed himself in prison, Moreau was pardoned and retired to the United States.
The legislative bodies were now completely subservient to Napoleon, and the conspiracy of Cadoudal was made a pretext for offering him the title of emperor. The senatus-consultum for the regulation of the empire, drawn up by Napoleon himself, was passed 18 May 1804. The empire was confirmed by a popular vote of 3,572,329 against 2,569. The coronation took place at Notre Dame on 2 Dec. 1804, and the empire was established.
Broglie, Duc de, 'Memoirs of the Prince Tall rand' (New York 1891); Browning, 0., 'Wars and Military Develop ment> (Vol. XVII, The Nineteenth Century, London and Toronto, 1902) ; Carey, M., 'A His tory of France' (A translation of Duruy's 'Histoire de France,' New York 1896) ; Crowe, 'History of France' (London 1858) ; Emerson, E., 'A History of the Nineteenth Century Year by Year (New York 1901) ; Fleury, Histoire de France' (1891) ; Fournier, A., 'Napoleon the First' (New York 1903) ; Guizot, 'Histoire de France' (Paris 1870) ; Hazen, 'The French Revolution and Napoleon' (New York 1917) ; Kitchen, G. W., 'History of France' (Oxford, 1906) ; Lenz, M., 'Napoleon' (New York 1907) ; Mackenzie, 'The Nineteenth Century' (Lon don 1882) ; Masson, F., 'Napoleon' (New York 1894) ; Rose, J. H., 'Life of Napoleon I) (New York 1901) ; Taine, 'Modern Regime) (New York 1894, Durand's translation) ; Thornton, 'Continental Rulers' (Vol. VI, The Nine teenth Century London 1902) ; Yonge, 'Three Centuries of Modern History' (London 1872) ; White, 'History of France' (1890). Also con sult Vols. VIII and IX of the 'Cambridge Modern History,' in which a long list of works covering this period is given.