Byzantine goldsmiths' work consists largely of doublets, stones cut en cabochon, gem plaques, set in relief and enriched with a groundwork of filigree or sprays of Byzantine acanthus. Examples of this are the golden throne of Theophilus, the crown of Charle magne. (See Cilowris). Cloisonné enameling came in vogue in this time and persons wore many jewels and trinkets. The "pala d'orop of Venice was a 10th century product of the Byzantine goldsmiths. Gaul saw a renaissance of goldsmithing in the 5th century and enamel work is claimed by some ancients to have orig inated in Gaul. They produced torques, brace lets and all kinds of warrors' trinkets with ware, declared that Etruscan jewelry was im possible of imitation. The Greek sculptors in the days of their greatest fame used goldwork to adorn their ivory statuary (chryselephan tine) ; even the great Phidias was a goldsmith. Mys was noted for his gold acanthus carving, also Theokles, Canachus, Smilis, Athenocles, Acragas, Theodoros of Samos were noted among the ancient Greeks for their creations of golden figures, masks and carved plant life. They placed an embossed gold-piece in the bottom of their patera (etrib/einata), they used gold ornament on their furniture, even made furniture entirely of the precious metal. At a festival in honor of Alexander 1,000 guests had a change of gold plates and cups at each course. From the Tene period (5th to 1st century e.c.) we find sword-hilts and. large bronze brooches (fibula') decorated with gold by the old northern nations, also Celtic gold coins consisting of thin "dished)) (concavo-convex) decorations, known as ubracteates," made in im simple plait and carved decoration. All we possess of the Merovingian period is arms and fibtil•. In the 6th century we hear of Bishop Abbo, Saint Eloi, his pupil, the abbot Thilo of Solignac monastery in the 7th century, all had their goldworking schools. In the 11th cen tury, Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim, had a school of goldsmithing, and he himself exe cuted fine work, specimens of which still exist in that city. The treasure of Guarrazar (see Caowris) is evidence of the clever workman ship done by the Visigoths of the 7th cen tury. In Italy the Lombards did lovely work and the gold antependium made for Basle Cathedral (now in Cluny Museum), dating late 10th or early 11th century, was one of their best works. Jewelry, bookcovers, crosses, etc., still extant are from their workshops. The Romanesque period is characterized by arch itectural forms, the reliquary chests (chasses) are miniature roofed edifices with gables and arcades containing figures of saints, etc. Fill gree and simple geometrical decoration are the groundwork for stone plaques and cabochons. The Saint Remigius chalice of Rheims is a noted example of this period, all of which work is ecclesiastical.
The Gothic period arrived with the 13th century and goldsmithing became work of the laity as well as of the monastery. Guilds were formed to protect the artisan and raise the level of his art. Examples of the 13th to 15th centuries are rare. The reliquary of Nivelle belongs to the 13th century. Noted workers were Jean de Montreux, Claux de Friburg, Henri the miniaturist, Hannequin-Duvuvier, goldsmith to the king in the 14th century, Gio vanni of Piza, who with his brothers worked in the cathedral at Arezzo. All Europe, by the 14th century, was fired by Italy's wonderful work. Ognabene of Pistoia had made the great cathedral altar; Cione was decorating the altar of Saint John at Florence. Flemish artists began to exert their influence and we have the names of Jehan Barbier, Jehan Fernide, Hans Croist, etc. In the 15th cen tury we have the luxurious dukes of Bur gundy collecting the rarest objects from the goldsmiths' workshops. The collection left by Louis, Duke of Anjou, had 796 articles of solid plate. The cities were making presentation of plate to the kings, the princes were making presents to other courts. Ecclesiastical reli quary caskets (chasses) had become veritable Gothic edifices with windows, trellised crest ings, pinnacles, clock-towers. The of
the laity were great examples of hammered work. We find the names of such noted gold smiths in France as Dufour, Guillaume, Boey, Jean de Clichy; in Italy worked the great artists, Pollajuolo, Verrochio, Francia Antel lotto Bracciaforte, Maso Finiguera, Andrea Arditi, Tommaso Ghirlandajo, besides Lorenzo Ghiberti who founded an entire school. Luca della Robbia, the goldsmith, was taking up sculpture. It was the Italian Renaissance in its zenith. In Germany were noted goldsmiths, Hans Greiff (Nuremberg), Heinrich Hufnagel (Augsburg).
In the 16th century France came under the influence of the Italian Renaissance; Benvenuto Cellini went to Paris in 1537 and started a school of goldsmithing. Cellini had made a great reputation in Florence with his superla• tive art in gold. Ever in trouble from his temper he was glad to expatriate himself for a season. The French love of luxury and the beautiful developed in a wonderful degree. And it was during one of his visits to Paris that Cellini is said to have produced the cele brated 'Nymph of But an edict was sent forth forbidding the use of gold in table services. It soon fell into desuetude. Beautiful models emanated from Delaulne and Woeirio, designs in pewter from Briot and grand executive talent is shown by such gold smiths as Desjardins, Ramel, Delahaie, Margot. Germany showed her Renaissance tendency in the works of Wentzel Jamnitzer, Peter Via cher, etc., though her Gothic traditions retain some influence in their work. The peculiar i Teutonic temperament is disclosed in her mountings of coconuts and ostrich-shells, her bulbous hanaps and pineapple (Ananas) cups. The spreading of the design engravings of Holbein the Younger, Diirer, Solis, etc., helped the art propaganda, and the 16th and 17th centuries• produced works from Flemish and Dutch experts such as de Bry, Collaert and the two Vianens of Utrecht. The early 17th cen tury saw the brothers Mosbereaux working in the Louvre, and other artists in gold such as Carteron, de la Barbe, de Roberdet; Ambrogio Foppa (Caradossa) was gaining fame in Milan, and Mignot at Augsburg. Under Louis XIV, later in the century, Lebrun's master mind was getting grand effects from the Gobelins, and gold decorative work came from the hands of de Villiers, Loir, Lepautie, Ballin, Delaunay. But the "grande Fonte' (lasting six months in 1688 and 1689) swept all the fine pieces of gold smithery in France into the melting-pot for war funds. With the entering 18th century we see the grandiose and pompous style of *le Roi Soleil° taking on a tenuous and delicate form from the designs of Berain; Briceau carried the idea into goldsmithing. Regency gold deco rative art in France produced large objects in gold but sparingly for it was forbidden. Julien Delafontaine did fine jewelry. The style in general was to suppress all excess in gold decoration, yet beauty of effect was produced. The goldsmithing work of Louis XV ran to fantastic decoration such as had become the fashion of all the arts. Some restraint is found in the rococo and rocaille scrolls and vegetable motifs of Juste-Aurele Meissonier and gold smith Pierre Germain. Roettiers showed talented work. This was the snuff-box col lectors' period, and the goldsmiths were equal to their patron's desire for a renewal every week to his stock of tabatilres of luxurious decoration. Fine gold decoration was displayed on milady's fans, bonbonniires, scissors; the dandy's watches, cane-heads, swordhilts, etc. Under all the Louis's French taste ruled over all Europe; Paul Lamerie, the French goldsmith, at the English capital set the style for that court from his workshop. The work of the goldsmith under Louis XVI was sober to severe in decora tion; Auguste and Cheret display the style in vogue. In the return to the antique for form and decoration during the empire period lies its true characteristic. Notable goldsmiths were Odiot, Thomire, Biennais, Fauconnier, the Fannieres, Froment-Meurice, Christofle.