The fusion was practically completed by the time of Charles the Great. He realized clearly the task of the Middle Ages, and did all in his power, on the one hand to retain all that was best of the older German customs, and, on the other hand, to introduce from Italy such Roman customs as his subjects were able to adopt. He did much to foster education, which followed Roman models. By his wars, he brought under his sword most of the German peoples.
The New Empire.— In 800, Charles' serv ices received fitting recognition in his election as emperor of the Roman Empire. The idea of a Roman empire which embraced all Christians had never been lost. After 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed, by Odoacer, the people in the West, Germans and Romans alike, had regarded the emperor at Constantinople as the head of the Christian world. Even barbarians like Clovis (q.v.) had been proud to secure recognition and obtain' a title from the emperor. The popes had looked to the emperors for support. In the last years of the 8th century the East was ruled over by Irene (q.v.), who was despised both because she was a woman and for her crimes and heresy, so that it seemed to many that the imperial office was vacant. Consequently, Charles was crowned emperor and was considered the successor of Augustus, Trajan and Constantine. Under his strong rule the Western world was governed firmly and the Western nations were held together.
Disintegration of the Empire.—After Charles' death, his son was unequal to the task of ruling the empire. Under the combined effects of civil strife and constant invasions by the Northmen, the Mohammedans and the Slays (qq.v.), the central power was weakened and the last Carolingian rulers were unable to pro tect their subjects. The whole frontier was ex posed to attacks and the raids of the enemy even extended far into the interior. In each district the strongest man came to be regarded as the natural leader and protector. Sometimes it was a royal official, holding a fortification; sometimes it was an abbot or a bishop; at other times, a bold adventurer, who usurped authority. In the absence of a strong central government, each leader had to police his land and admin ister justice. Naturally, he demanded to be paid for his services and exacted tribute from all under his control.
Because of the lack of money, the Carolin gians (see CARUWINGIA NS ) had always fur nished to their counts and other officials estates from which to obtain a living. Under the
weak kings, the temporary grants of both land and office became hereditary, with or with out the rulers' consent. The rulers, however, soon recognized the necessity of allowing this and sought merely the recognition of their own overlordship. Consequently, they granted the benefices to the heirs and conferred, in addition, the immunity or right of independent jurisdic tion. Thus almost all land and power came to be held feudally. See FEUDALISM.
Feudal Anarchy.— There was constant warfare as each strong lord sought to obtain greater power or a more independent position. On the other hand, each king tried to increase his own feudal holdings by conquest or mar riage. Every vassal was anxious to avoid all the feudal services that he could, and, at the same time, to exact as much as possible from the people subject to him. Commerce was burdened with excessive tolls in each fief and exposed to the depredations of the robber bar ons. Little attention was paid to maintaining roads and bridges, consequently travel was difficult as well as dangerous. As a whole, the feudal regime tended to isolate each fief and to reduce the peasantry to misery. It is sig mficant that the term "Dark Ages,* formerly applied to the whole of the Middle Ages, 'is often used now for the 9th and 10th centuries.
The Church.— The great cohesive and edu cational force was the Church. Soon after they entered the Roman Empire, each tribe of Germans had been converted to Christianity; all except the Franks (q.v.) became Arians (q.v.) at first, but gradually this heresy was abandoned. In every barbarian kingdom the bishops were important officials. They often obtained great wealth, and ruled over vast estates. On their possessions, the serfs were treated somewhat better than on the lay fiefs. Monasteries had been founded throughout western Europe, and often these served both as schools and as model farms. Boniface did much to bring the tribes of Germany into direct connection with Rome, and he held frequent Church councils at which the clergy and nobles of a whole district came together. These coun cils were very important for their effect in uni fying the Church and making its work more effective.