Byzantine Civilization. Until 60 years ago, Byzantine history was misunderstood. It was looked upon as the long death struggle of a society in which all progress had ceased, and despotism, tempered by assassination, crushed out all vitality. Gibbon styled the his tory as tedious and uniform tale of weakness and misery." It is known now that this was unjust. The most striking fact about the By zantine Empire is its *constant vitality and power of recuperation?' It was repeatedly threatened by invaders, but it repelled them all At times it lost some of its most fertile prov inces, but at other periods it would rise trium phantly and recover lost possessions. Through out the period between 700 and 1100, Constan tinople was the bulkwark of Europe, against which the waves of invasions rolled in vain. In addition to being a bulkwark, Constantinople was, throughout the Middle Ages, the great storehouse of the Greek and Roman civiliza tions, where it was preserved until the European nations sufficiently advanced to profit by it. Constantinople (q.v.) was also the most important commercial centre of the Middle Ages. The city was marvelously wealthy and excited the admiration of every traveler. Most of the Crusaders passed through Constantinople and the Greek lands on their way to Jerusalem; by them the influence of its civilization was widely spread throughout the West. See BY ZANTINE EMPIRE.
Moslem Civilization. No less important was the influence of the Mohammedans. After the death of the Prophet in 632, his followers had conquered with wonderful rapidity the greater part of the civilized world. From Persia and India they held all Asia to the Hel lespont. Egypt and the whole north coast of Africa, Spain and about one-third of Gaul, were under their sway within a century. Their advance in civilization was equally rapid. The Arabs had great acquisitive ability. In each country they learned the arts and sciences known by the inhabitants, and they carried this knowledge wherever they ruled. The Greek philosophy, which they acquired from the peo ples in the lands formerly under Greek sway, the mathematical knowledge of India, the irri gation practised in Egypt, are illustrations of their acquisitions, which enabled them, in the 10th and 11th centuries, to develop a civiliza tion far in advance of any other, with the ex ception of the Byzantine. From Bagdad to Spain this culture was spread throughout the Mussulman world. In Syria, the Crusaders were in contact with this civilization for two cen turies. By their agency and by the association of Christians and Mussulmans in Spain, Sicily and other points, much of the Moslem learning was conveyed to the Christians of western Europe.
Changes in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Enrichment of Europe. In addition to this fructifying intercourse with other civilizations, many elements in their own contributed to cause a rapid advance in the 12th and 13th centuries. Among these may be noted the increase in popopu lation, the cultivation of waste lands, the revival of commerce, the general progress along educa tional lines and the rise of strong kingdoms. But as it is impossible to isolate each factor and to determine the part which it played, the results will be considered as a whole and the changes which took place in western Europe after 1100 will be described.
The hundreds of thousands of Crusaders had to procure large sums of money for their equip ment and journey. Consequently the precious metals which had been hoarded came into cir culation as money. Instruments of credit were devised and the money circulated rapidly. Con tact with other civilizations gave birth to new tastes and these were gratified by means of a greatly increased commerce which extended to all parts of Europe and even to the extreme East. The merchants became numerous and prospered. Cities increased rapidly in popula tion and new ones were founded. The Italian cities, because of their position, prospered the most of all. The merchants became an im portant class because of their wealth, and by the end of the 13th century became a political fac tor which was recognized by their inclusion in the new parliamentary bodies.
Intellectual Advance. The investiture struggle had caused scholars to study history in order to find precedents in support of the imperial or of the papal claims. The contact with other peoples broadened the intellectual horizon of the Western people. The new points of view with which they became acquainted led them to question the traditions which had ruled their lives. The new books, especially the works of Aristotle (q.v.), which fell into their hands, were studied eagerly. The new wealth gave leisure. Students flocked to the centres where teachers were to be found, and gradually uni versities arose. Roman law was fostered by the emperors; canon law by the Church. Scientific knowledge, especially in medicine, was acquired from the Greek and the Arabic works. Gothic cathedrals of exquisite beauty were built in west ern Europe. The deeds of the Crusaders fur nished new material to literature. The old tales were reworked and given a literary form.
Growth of Monastic Orders. Tempenl Power of the Popes. No less marked were the changes in the Church. At the close of the 11th century a great wave of asceticism spread over western Europe. The idea of sacrifice caused thousands to enter monasteries, and many new orders of monks were founded. These orders vied with one another in austerity and asceticism. Their reputation for sanctity and their services to the community brought to them great donations. Their knowledge en' abled them to increase their wealth. But this wealth led many to enter the monasteries from unworthy motives, and thus caused a gradual decline in their morals. The wealth of the Church, as a whole, caused many, both and laymen, to attack it as having departed from its Christian ideals. Heretics became numerous and had to be repressed by persecutions and the Inquisition. In the 13th century the men dicant orders became prominent, partly as a protest against the wealth of the Church, and partly as an agency to combat heresy. The ideal of service to others for which they stood be came dominant in monasticism, and later orders were founded, almost universally, for some special service. See MONACHISM ; ORDERS, Rt.