Townsend Harris, who was commissioned consul general in September 1855 and established his residence on the Bay of Yedo at Shimoda which had been opened to American commerce by Perry's treaty, soon found that the opening to foreigners, accepted as inevitable by the government, was resisted by the people who were unwilling to receive the ((western barbar ians? In the disorder which resulted in the period of readjustment, while other nations held the weak and tottering Japanese government to the strictest accountability, he refused to sanction harsh and oppressive measures. But, though interested in Japanese welfare and op posed to taking any unfair advantage of Japanese ignorance of international relations, he firmly and skillfully ripped open the laminated deception of the Japanese diploma tists and succeeded in obtaining all the conces sions which became the basis of new treaties negotiated at Yedo in the American spirit of justice and tolerance — treaties which secured commercial rights and laid the foundations of diplomatic intercourse. By a treaty negotiated 17 June 1857 he secured rights of permanent residence at the two open ports, the opening of an additional port at Nagasake, residence of a vice-consul at Hakodate, and extraterritoriality. On 29 July 1858, having secured right of audi ence, he negotiated the third important Ameri can providing for mutual diplomatic representation at the national capitals, three new ports, extension of the jurisdiction of consular courts, full religious freedom and privileges to Americans, and regulation of cus toms (subject to revision after five years if desired by Japan). Ratifications were ex changed at Washington with appropriate cere monies in 1860 by a special Japanese embassy which aroused public interest. In recognition of his services, in January 1859 Mr. Harris was commissioned minister resident, a position which he held until April 1862.
The American policy of separate action and respect for Japanese sovereignty—a policy consistently maintained except in emergencies created for a brief period by Japanese foreign agitation and internal disorders — increased Japanese confidence and facilitated diplomatic relations.
Unfortunately Japan, under the influences of the misfortunes which had overwhelmed China, and against the prudent policy counselled by the American representative, sought to tem porize in the face of apprehended dangers, but gradually yielded to foreign demands. Thus it was forced to grant extraterritoriality, under which foreign consuls set up miniature courts involving the unfortunate natives in technical violations of their edicts, and to submit to foreign demands for tariff concessions, for various exemptions (from land taxes, tonnage and lighthouse dues, and bridge tolls) and for monopoly of coastwise trade. Tlie tariff con cessions later involved the country in financial distress, resulting from the burden of taxes on agricultural interests which produced detesta tion for the government and disdain for foreigners.
Even while Harris was serving as American minister. conservative opposition to the treaty concessions produced an anti-foreign agitation, incidentally resulting in the assassination of Harris' secretary, the burning of the American legation and the compulsory withdrawal of American representatives from Yedo.
After 1863, as a result of the necessity of chastening the reactionary feudatory Japanese prince of Choshiu who in defiance of the Ty coon had closed the Shimonoseki straits, the American government adopted a new rule of practice in regard to international relations.
i Harris' successor, R. H. Pruyn, in concert with representatives of other governments de manded the observance of treaties and in Janu ary 1864 negotiated a treaty reducing duties. In his petiod as minister, occurred the revolt against the Shogun, who represented the legal government. It culminated in the attempt by the rebellious daimio of Nogato to close the straits of Shimonoseki, an act which resulted in an expedition of allied fleets in which vessels of the United States participated. Following the action of the reactionary lord of Choshiu in firing on American and other foreign ships in Shimonoseki Strait, the United States govern ment acted in connection with governments of other powers (Great Britain, France and the Netherlands) in bombarding Shimonoseki forts and in exacting indemnity (1864), in securing at Osaka (in November 1865) the Imperial section to the existing treaties, and in nego tiating a concerted international treaty (of June 1866) securing more liberal trade privi leges and a regulation limiting duties at 5 per cent during the pleasure of the treaty powers but providing for revision within a specified time by concert of the powers — a regulation which proved burdensome to Japan. Religious toleration largely secured through the firmness of the American minister Van Valkenburg and his successors between 1868 and 1874 was later sanctioned by the Constitution of 1889.
Following the revolution which resulted in the establishment of the emperor's government at Tokio, Japan made unsuccessful efforts to negotiate for a reconsideration and revision of burdensome treaty relations with a • view to securing autonomy, to take effect after 1872. These efforts were made, first through the foreign ministers at Tokio, and later (1871-72) through a Japanese embassy of five eminent men which was sent to visit foreign capitals but found no hope of concessions except at Washington. Then, encouraged especially by the friendly liberal spirit of the United States, the awakened nation began the task of reaching a high national standard which would be recog nized by the treaty powers. The first step was taken by increasing the number of young Japanese students sent abroad for education, and by increasing travel abroad by Japanese of maturity to observe the ways of the western world. The progressive results appeared in the establishment of a system of diplomatic re ceptions at Tokio in 1872, the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1872, the creation of provincial assemblies in 1875, followed in rapid succession by codes of laws, compulsory uni versal education, a constitution, and a national parliament.