Law.— Biblical and Talmudic legislation shows clearly that the Jews from olden days showed special inclination toward law and its interpretation. Coworkers in the compilation of the Pandects, they furnish distinguished jurists, judges and lawyers. In France they can point to Adolphe Cremieux, August Beclar rides, A. Lyon-Caen; in England to Sir George Jesse!, Sir George Lewis, J. Waley, Earl Read ing; in Holland to the Assers, Goudsmit, Gode froi; in Germany and Austro-Hungary, to Eduard Gans, Levin Goldschmidt, Paul Laband. Karl Grfinhut, Herman Staub, Heinrich Har burger, Heinrich Wiener, H. Friedeberg, H. Makower, Eduard von Simson, Wolfgang Wes sely, David Rubi, Ferd. Frensdorf, Julius Unger, Max Neuda, H. Dernburg, J. Glaser; in America they include a number of State and city judges.
Philosophy.— Recent writers call the Jews "the people of philosophy," and in fact to re flect on the highest questions of life has ever been their custom. Philosophy was regarded among them as one of the weightiest sciences both during the Middle Ages and to-day. We have to thank the Jews for the diffusion in Europe of Neo-Platonism, for being interme diaries between the Arab and Christian philos ophy, for the basis of Scholasticism, the popu larizing of Greek philosophy in Europe, and the birth of a new conception of the universe. In the construction of this new-world philos ophy, above all else in spreading the systems of Kant, Hegel and Schopenhauer, Jews have taken a conspicuous part. Among the Alexan drian philosophers Philo is pre-eminent, Solo mon Ibn Gabirol opened a new path for Plato nism, and was Scholasticism's pioneer, Moses Maimonides raised Aristotelianism to specula tive heights. (See article JEWISH PHILOSOPHT-• CAL WRITERS in this section). Baruch Spinoza was influenced by him and later investigators, who were more inclined to mysticism. Jews were associated with the achievements of the Renaissance and Humanism, because they were teachers of the leaders of those movements. It was Moses Mendelssohn who popularized philosophy. Markus Herz and Salomon Mai mon, Lazarus Bendavid, were enthusiastic sup porters of Kant, whose most important repre sentative in the new philosophy is Prof. Her mann Cohen of Marburg. The founders of the school of folk-psvchology, Moritz Lazarus and H. Steinthal, champion Herbart's philos ophy. Hegel's best followers were Eduard Gans and Julius Braniss; Schopenhauer's most ardent disciples, Julius Frauenstidt, D. Asher, Moritz Venetianer. In addition belong to philos ophy Ludwig Stein, H. Bergson, Adolph Las son, S. L. Steinheim, Adolphe Franck S. Alex ander.
Philology.— In the line of language, too, the Jews have labored with zeal. They count
among the foremost workers in philology, as well as in literary history and bibliography. A brief summary of names will be sufficientproof — such as G. Ascoli, Jules Oppert, jacob Bernays, Theodor Gompertz, Michele Amari, Theodor Benfey, M. Breal, James and Arsine Darmesteter, Jos. and Hartwig Derenbourg, H. Weil, W. Freund, Julius Furst, Lazarus Geiger, Theodor Goldstficker, Ignatz Goldziher, I. Halevy, Wilhelm Bather, H. Hirschfeld, S. Landauer, Gustav Weill, A. Harkavy, Salomon Munk, Adolf Mussafia, Daniel Sanders, S. Benedetti, L. Kellner, I. Gollanz, and in the United States, Marcus Jastrow, Alexander Kohut, M. Bloomfield, and a number of younger scholars v.ho have done much to arouse interest in Semitic studies at American universities.
History.— In the Middle Ages history was neglected — they had no time to write their history, for before their old sufferings were narrated, new trials were to be endured. A few chronicles alone survive, with some Memor. Books. From the historian Josephus, of the 1st century, to our time, Judaism has produced no eminent historian of the outside world. With so much more zeal have Jews in more recent years devoted themselves to this depart ment, men like Philipp Jaffe, Martin Philipp son, Max &dinger, Harry Bresslau, Samuel Sugenheim, Alfred Stern, Adolf Beer, Ernst Bernheim, Jacob Caro, Heinrich Friedjung. Salomon and Theodor Reinach, Julius Schwarz, Cesare d'Ancona, Alfred Przibram, E. Szanto. Samuel Romanelli is the historian of Venice, and Robert Davidson of Florence. Charles Gross, of Harvard, is an authority on early English history, as is Felix Lieberman on English law. In the history of the Jews in its varied depart ments Jewish scholars have naturally displayed particular ability — one need only mention names like Graetz, Zunz, Jost, Steinschneider, Geiger, Kayserling, Giidemann, A. Berliner. In the closely-allied branch of archeology, Charles Waldstein is a pre-eminent name, with B. Be renson in art criticism.
In its earliest historical pe riod Israel gave to humanity its best achieve ment in literature—the Bible, which with proph ets and psalmists, despite the latest discoveries and researches, remains without a peer in the entire stretch of the world's literature. Since the close of the Canon until to-day the Bible has furnished a wealth of inspiration to the poets and writers of every race. The greatest poets in the world have been impelled by its words; it has exerted a distinct influence on the literary genius of every European literature, and how much plastic art is its debtor is far from being appreciated.