APENNINES, the chief mountain range of Italy, about 800 miles long and 25 to 85 miles wide, extending from Savona to Reggio in the form of a bow. Geologically the Apen nines resemble the Alps and connect them with the north Sicilian and north African mountain ranges. Granite and crystalline schist (gneiss and mica-schist) are found in the Ligurian Apennines, especially in Calabria, south of the Gulf of Policastro. In the Apen nines proper these older crystalline formations are entirely lacking. They consist principally of limestone, dolomite, sandstone, and marl, of the Chalk and Tertiary formations, in which occur strata of serpentine in the north and sometimes trachyte and basalt, especially on Mount Vulture. In the northern Apennines and also in the Tuscan highlands, there are large quantities of marl, shale and blue-gray sandstone, which belong in part to the Chalk formation and in part to the early Tertiary. Limestone is found in large quantities in the composition of the whole mountain range. Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Liassic deposits occur in the Apuan Alps, the famous marble of Carrara belonging to the Liassic or Triassic period. The Apennines are divided into six parts, according to the regions through which they pass and these fall into three groups, the northern Apennines (including the Ligurian and Etruscan) ; the middle Apen nines (the Roman Apennines and the Abruz zi) ; the southern Apennines (the Neapolitan and Calabrian). The Ligurian Apennines reach from the Col de Tenda, the geological boundary of the Alps, to the Pass of Cisa (about 700 miles). The southern slope falls abruptly to the sea, the northern slope grad ually, with many valleys, toward the river Po. Numerous passes lead_ from the coast towns over the range, among them the Bochctta Pass and the Giovi Pass from Genoa; and the Genoa-A1essandria Railroad has cut a tunnel through near the last named pass. From there to the east the range almost doubles its width and increases in height. The eastern half, consisting of several parallel chains, is difficult to cross and a serious hindrance to transportation. In this portion there are prac tically no thoroughfares except the railroad from Parma to Spezia.
The Etruscan Apennines, extending to the valley of the Metauro, have a southeasterly di rection throughout and consist of several ranges, one in front of the other, like the links of a chain. The most noted peaks are in the northern part, the Alpe de Succiso (about 0,600 feet), Mount Cusna (over 6,900 feet) and Mount Cimone (7,103 feet), the latter being the highest peak in the northern Apennines. The northern portion includes the Apuan Alps, bounded by the valley of the Serchio, the Ma gra and the Antella, which reach the height of about 6,400 feet in Mount Pisano and are of pure marble (Carrara) on the slope toward the sea. The most important thoroughfare of the Etruscan Alps is the railroad from Bologna to Florence, which passes through a tunnel near Prachia; the La Fluta Pass, over which the road from Florence to Bologna passes, should also be mentioned. The Roman Apennines, beginning between the valleys of the Tiber and the Metauro, extend to the valley of the Tronto and Belino and consist of numerous parallel chains. In the north the main peak is Mount Catria (about• 5,420 feet); in the south, the chain of the Sybilline Mountains rise to the height of 5,100 feet (Mount Vit tore). The formation of the range here ren ders the crossing easy and the railroad from Ancona to Florence and Rome crosses here. The Abruzzi extend southward from the val ley of the Tronto and in their eastern chain in Gran Sasso' dltalia reach the greatest height in the whole Apennines (Mount Corno, 9,585 feet). The western chain, which, with the eastern, encloses the Plain of Aquila, has a height of almost 8,150 feet (Mount Velino) and south of the Pescara tunnel is the Majella range with a height of 9,200 feet. The Neapol itan Apennines extend from the valley of the Sangro and Volturno to that of the Crati, but their altitude is much less than that of the middle Apennines, the Matesian Mountains reaching the height of over 6,700 feet in. Mount
Miletto. Rounded, wave-like shapes prevail in this range. On the eastern range is the extinct volcano of Mount Vulture. The roads and railroads from the west to the east coast encounter no particular difficulty in crossing this range. In the south the Apennines reach again a noticeable height in Mount Pellino (7,450 feet) and slope abruptly to the valley of the Crati. The Calabrian Apennines con sist of a small chain sloping abruptly to the Tyrrhenian Sea and of the granite plateau of the Silagian Mountains with a mean height of 3,000 feet. This north Calabrian mountain land is separated from the south Calabrian by a neck of land between the Gulf of Santa Eusemia and the Gulf of Squillace. The outer northerly and northeastern slope of the Apen nines is gradual, the eastern slope almost everywhere so abrupt that on the Adriatic coast there is only room for a road. Since the Apen nines to the west of the Gulf of Salerno lie near the coast, but in the north extend farther and farther away from it, there exists a three cornered space in which lie the so-called Lower Apennines. The volcanic formation is espe cially characteristic of these mountains and these regions are the classic ground of present and former volcanic action. Therefore there are here active and extinct volcanoes and hot springs, among them the springs of Voltena. The Lower Apennine region is divided into several parts by the broad valleys of the rivers flowing from the Apennines. Of these divi sions the Tuscan highland is the most noted, ending on the south at the lower Tiber. In the interior are fertile plains sloping gently toward the valley of the Arno; in the west the highlands end with an abrupt slope, between which and the coast lie the plains of Marem ma, from which rise a few single peaks. The part of the Lower Apennines between the val leys of the Tiber and the Garigliano includes two small mountain-groups: the Alban Moun tains, famed for their beautiful scenery, and the Volsker Mountains extending as far as the coast near Terracina. West of these Volscian Mountains lies a plain whose northern por tion includes the Campagna of Rome, while the southern part contains the Pontine marshes. The southernmost part of the Lower Apen-• nines extends from the Garigliano to the moun tain range of Castellamare, north of Salerno, and includes the plain of Campagia, noted for its fertility as well as its beauty. From this plain rise several single volcanoes, including the extinct Mount Della Croce in the north and Vesuvius (4,200 feet) in the south. The climate is on the whole more severe than would be expected from the latitude and the position of Italy, while the heat in summer reaches a degree almost unendurable in the low and shel tered valleys, and palms and other tropical vegetation can thrive on almost all the west coast; neither fruit nor grain grow on the ex posed, windy heights, with their elevation of over 3,000 feet, and the trees are few and stunted. The region of vegetation may be di vided into four sections: (1) The olive region to the 1,500-foot elevation, with Mediterranean flora, garden plants and winter pasturage; (2) the region of the chestnut and oak, to the ele vation of 3,000 feet with agricultural products and chestnut woods; (3) the region of the beech and coniferous trees at the height of 3,000 to 6,000 feet; (4) the region of the shrubs and Alpine plants with summer pasturage ex tending to the highest peaks. In climate, there fore, the northern Apennines form a line of separation between north and south; only on their northern slopes does Italy really begin. The northern part only presents great difficul ties in traveling. The mountains are now traversed by several railroads, mostly by means of tunnels.