RATIONALISM, in its more general sig nification, denotes a tendency or attitude of thought, either on the part of an individual or an age, to demand that prevailing beliefs, cus toms and institutions shall be subjected to critical examination, and be required to justify themselves before the court of reason. In its more specific sense, the term refers to•the doc trines of a particular school of philosophical thinkers, which flourished mainly in France and Germany during the 17th and 18th centuries and which regarded reason as the only source of certain knowledge and the only test of truth.
In the general and more popular use of the term, rationalism is equivalent to a demand for a reasonable explanation in scientific terms. The rise of rationalism is thus in many re spects identical with the development of the scientific spirit of inquiry. As such, it is op posed to mysticism and supernaturalism. Lecky, in his History the Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe,) explains the word as kollows: the spirit of rationalism, I un derstand not any class of definite doctrines or criticisms, but rather a certain cast of thought, or bias of reasoning, which has during the Wt three centuries gained a marked ascendency? in Europe. . . . At present, it will be sufficient to say, that it leads men on all occasions to subordinate dogmatic theology to the dictates of reason and of conscience, and, as a necessary consequence, greatly to restrict its influence upon life. It predisposes men, in history, to attribute all kinds of phenomena to natural rather than miraculous causes; in theology, to esteem succeeding systems the expressions of the wants and aspirations of that religious senti ment which is planted in all men ,• and, in ethics, to regard as duties only those which conscience reveals to he such.° Between the claims of re vealed religion and the spirit of rationalism the conflict has been especially sharp and long-con-: tinned, opposition shows itself even before the birth of Christianity in almost all of the older religious. In Greece, for example, where
religion was only to a very slight extent em bodied in dogmas, the philosophers were never theless ,frequently charged with atheism, or with perverting and destroying the national re ligion through their rationalistic teachings, With the establishment of the Christian Church, the doctrines of religion were explicitly declared tn be•above reason and to rest upon a higher authority than human reason could afford. Nevertheless, from time to time there arose thinkers within the Church itself who strove to reduce the theological doctrines to a rationalistic basis, interpreting them in such a way as to minimize or destroy the supernaturalistic ele ments which they contained. Of these mediaeval rationalists Abelard (q.v.), 1079-1142, is per haps the most famous. It was not until the 18th century, however, that rationalism became strong enough and bold enough to make open war upon the prevailing theological beliefs and doctrines. This century was called the age of enlightenment, and in it the demand arose on all sides that everything should be explained in terms of the clear and distinct ideas of rea son, that mysteries and superstitions should he abolished, that the authority of Church and State should be limited and subordinated to the principles of reason and the interest of the indi vidual members of society. The Deistic move ment in England is especially noteworthy as maintaining the right of individual free thought in matters of religion, and as attacking the abuses and absurdities in the existing theologi cal creeds. Lord Herbart of Cherbury and John Locke may be regarded as forerunners of Flog lish Deism (q.v.). The best-known representa tives of the movement are John Toland (1670 1729), Anthony Collins (1676-1729), Matthew Tindal (1657-1733), Thomas Chubb M 1747) and Thomas organ. The influence of this movement was felt throughout Europe. In Voltaire it found a spokesman of extraordinary literary power who had also the courage to carry its principles to its logical conclusions.