Medieval Republica.— In mediaeval times there were the Lombard communes, the inde pendent cities of Italy, the free cities of Ger many and Iceland, all of which had republican forms of government. Lombardy, in the north of Italy, was a separate kingdom, part of the Carolingian Empire, or annexed to the German Empire until near the close of the 10th cen tury. Then arose a number of independent duchies, as Mantua, Sum, Piedmont and others and several independent cities that in the 11th century became republics. Among these were Florence, Milan, Padua, Piacenza, Treviso, Modena, Cremona, Vicenza and Bologna. In them municipal organization grew up independ ent of Church or empire that had heretofore dominated. Consuls were elected by the citi zens and arts, crafts and guilds had part in the control of affairs. Between these cities there was no firm federal compact, but is times of danger they formed powerful leagues for mutual defense. Although they grew in wealth, power and influence their governments were never stable. They quarreled with each other and were torn by internal dissensions, con stantly shifting between the power of the people and the power of the few. The history of Florence, which remained longest the champion of constitutional liberty, is a story of centuries of contention between the forces of democracy and oligarchy. One by one these cities finally fell before the assaults of foes, were incorpo rated into Idngdomt, duchies 'or principalities, becoming, in some instances, possessions of Austria and finally were incorporated into the kingdom of Italy. In the 10th century Genoa established a free constitution. During the next two centuries the republic increased in wealth and power. A world-wide commerce was established and many of the large cities of southern Europe and Asia came under her con trol, as Marseilles, Nice, Venice and Constan tinople. At the outset the constitution of the state leaned toward an aristocracy. A bitter antagonism between conservatism and democ racy developed, changes of government became frequent and in 1339 the citizens elected a doge for life. Three centuries later Genoa yielded to Austria and then to France,, by the Treaty of Vienna became a tributary city of the clinian monarchy and ultimately •a part of the Italian kingdom. Venice had an independent government in the middle of the 6th century, her rulers being called military tribun is. From 697 to 755 the elected chief magistrate was the doge, whose authority was well-nigh imperial. Umversal suffrage existed, but during the sea son of the republic's greatest prosperity, wealth and aristocracy for the most part administered public affairs. In time the democracy demanded more rights and privileges and in the 11th and 12th centuries the strife between the aristocracy and the commonalty was determined and bitter. In 1172 the government became essentially a patrician oligarchy with constantly increasing power, and in 1298 popular elections were abol ished by the Great Council. Further encroach ments upon the civic rights of the people, ex pensive wars with sister republics and selfish legislation of the oligarchy undermined patriot ism, and for four centuries the classes fought with each other. In 1674 the oligarchy yielded to the commonalty and for another century the republic continued in varying fortune until Napoleon, in 1797, placed it under the domina tion of Austria. Amalfi, on the west coast of southern Italy, was an independent city of 50,000 inhabitants in the 9th century and the capital of a flourishing republic. Toward the close of the 11th century Amalfi was subjugated by the Normans.
Later Struggles.—The larger towns and communities of northwestern Europe gradually freed themselves from the exactions of feudal lords and became independent. From the be ginning of the 12th century they established a large commercial intercourse between them selves and with the rest of the world. To pro tect themselves against marauders and to de velop their commercial interests they formed the Hanseatic League in the 13th century. Hamburg, Lubeck, Bremen, Frankfort and Cologne were the principal cities in this league, but city after city joined the union until it em braced 85, and in power matched the strongest governments of Europe. These cities were sov ereign states and, while part of the German confederation or empire, they exercised full authority in their local affairs. In the Hanse
confederacy they held the Baltic in dominfon and controlled the foreign commerce of north ern Europe. The league lasted until 1630, al though previous to that date it had been shorn of its powers. Most of the cities had been absorbed into the German kingdoms or princi palities and at last only Hamburg. Lubeck, Bremen and Frankfort •remained •inclepelident. In 1813 these four became free members of the German Confederacy, but in 1866 Frankfort fell to Prussia. Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen still retain their freedom in local affairs, being gov erned by chambers of representatives elected by Popular vote.
Iceland was settled by exiles from the tyranny of the princes of Norway, Denmark and Scotland, in the 10th century and a re publican form of government was established in 928. At the head was placed a supreme magis trate, elected by the people and sharing author ity with a general assembly. This form of government lasted for nearly 400 years and Ice land attained to civilization and a measure of prosperity. But internal dissensions sprang up and civil wars devastated the island. In 1621 the National Council, by common consent of the people, invited Haco, king of Norway, to be come Iceland's ruler and in 1380, again by com mon consent and peacefully, the island was transferred to Denmark.
During the 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th centuries Belgium and Bavaria were split up into small dominions. In 1383 the house of Burgundy ob tained control of this territory, which after ward became the 17 provinces of the Nether lands. Following the Burgundian rule came the long struggle with Spain, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, by which the in dependence of the republic of the United Prov inces was acknowledged by the great powers of Europe. The provinces had formally united, with William of Orange as stadtholder, in 1580. The republic continued through many vicissi tudes for two centuries, the people enjoying political freedom and the nation acquiring a high degree of power and prosperity. European politics could not withhold its hand from the Netherlands, and the Dutch provinces were in constant turmoil within and engaged in war without. In 1747, through all these influences, William IV was made captain and admiral general of the whole union and stadtholder of the seven provinces; a little later these offices were made hereditary in both male and female lines. At the time of the French Revolution the stadtholder was driven out by the French and the old republican forms of government re-established; but in 1814 the people recalled the Prince of Orange from his exile in Eng land and established the monarchy, under Wil liam I, king of the Netherlands.
France.— The first French republic had an inglorious career of 12 years. It began with the overthrow of the monarchy in 1792 and ended with the crowning of Napoleon as em peror of France, in 1804. The 12 years of this republic were 12 years of terror. A state of anarchy existed, not a state of government. It was a despotism of a democratic mob united with the despotism of a democratic dictatorship.' When the passion of the hour had burned itself out and Robespierre, Marat, Danton and other leaders had fallen, France turned again to a monarchy for self-preservation. For the second time the people, in 1848, overthrew the mon archy and re-established a republic. The king, Louis Phillippe, abdicated and fled to England and a new constitution was adopted, providing for a President, a council of state and an as sembly elected by popular vote. Louis Bona parte was elected the first President and in 1852 by an almost unanimous vote he was accepted as hereditary emperor under the name of leon HI. The second empire lasted for 18 years and was succeeded by the third republic in 1870, which was in stable and unthreatened existence in 1918. The defeat of France by Germany in 1870 led to the overthrow of Napoleon III and the Napoleonic dynasty. For almost half a century France, the republic, has steadily grown in wealth and power, and is reckoned as one of the strongest nations of Its govern ment is a pure democracy and authority is vested in a President elected for seven years, by the Congress and a Senate and Chamber a Deputies elected by the people, the latter by popular vote and the former by an electoral body.