South America.— The South American re publics are 10 in number, Argentine, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. Early in the 16th century Spain invaded and subjugated Peru and achieved a conquest of almost the entire 'South American continent. For three centuries she was able to master and hold not only that portion of the hemisphere, but also the territories of Mexico and Central America and a great part of what is now the western and southwestern section of the United States. In South America she divided power only with Portugal. In the first quarter of the 19th an they most of the 'South American States achieved their •independence and established themselves under reptiblican forms of government. The agitation for emancipation broke out almost simultaneously in different parts of 'the con tinent but was not always quiddy or easily successful. In 1810 the Chileans revolted against the king of Spain and a junta which met at Santiago elected the Marquis de la Plate, a native Chilean, President of the republic, but it was not until 1818 that independence was formally proclaimed. A constitution was voted in 1833. The Argentine provinces freed them. selves from the Spanish yoke in 1810, but were immediately embroiled in disputes and icon tendons among themselves. The history of the republic until comparatively recently was a record of anarchy, civil contentions and war fare with European nations and sister lics. The existing constitution was adopted in 1853. Paraguay gained its independence 1811 and after a short period of government by two councils, the supreme power watt seized in 1815 by Dr. Jose Gaspir Rodriguez Ramie, who exercised autocratic sway as dictator un til his death in 1840. A state of anarchy fol lowed and lasted two years, after. which , a National Congress ,put two consuls at the bead of affairs. The dictatorship of President 1.45per followed, and in 1870 a new constitution was voted, making the country a full-fledged re public. Bolivar, the liberator, began his 'work for freeing South America from the Spanish yoke in 1809. After alternate 'defeat and .suct4 cess, he finally triumphed, and in 1819 united New Granada and Venezuela as a republic un. der the name of Colombia: In 1832 the republic split up into Venezuela, Ecuador and New Granada, and after several changes in constitu tion and in state membership, the country 'be came, in 1886, the republic Of Colombia. In 1820 San Martin, at the head of an invading army from the republic of Chile, entered Peru, drove out the Spanish authorities and claimed himself protector. Two years later Simon Bolivar, at the request of San Martin, entered the country and was appointed dictator. Under Bolivar, Peru achieved her full free dom. A succession of civil wars and constitu tional changes followed during a period of ever 30 years. A constitution, in the modern spirit, was proclaimed in 1866 and under it the republic has continued since. In 1825, the re public of Bolivar was instituted from the south ern province of by,Simon Bolivar and named after its 'founder. The constitution then formed underwent important modifications in 1828, 1831, 1863 and 1840. For nearly 'two centuries the territory, of was the subject of almost constant contention between Brazil and Buenos Aires. In 1828 by the mediation of England, the northern part of the territory was ceded to Brazil and the south ern part was erected into the republic of Um-• gaay, having declared its independence three years before. The constitution was established in 1830. The republic of Ecuador was estab lished in 1830 as the outcome of a civil war which separated the members of the original republic of Colombia formed, by Simon Bolivar upon the ruins of the Spanish kingdom of New Granada. Its constitution was voted in 1844 and modified in 1887., Venezuela also had its origin in '1830 in the break-up of the Bolivar republic of Colombia. The Spanish flag was cut down in this province in 1811 and the struggle against Spain was carried on until 1823, when the Spanish troops were completely expelled. The charter of fundamental laws put into force in 1830 has been several times modi fied: Of all the South American countries, Brazil remained longest under a monarchy. It was an appanage of Portugal until 1815. The royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil in 1807 and establishing the thrpne there; the colony was declared a kingdom in 1815. When the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, Brazil declared itself independent with Dom Pedro, son of Dom Joao VI of Portugal, as emperor. The throne came to Dom Pedro II in 1831 and he ruled until 1889, when, by a revolution, he was deposed and, with his family, exiled to Europe. Brazil was declared a republic under the name of the United States of Brazil. In origin, in career and in form of constitutional government, the South American republics show striking similarity. The cry for liberty expressed in the French Revolution and more especially the successful establishment of the republic of the United States of America in spired the patriots of the southern part of the hemisphere to the struggle for freedom. In es tablishing constitutional government, they took pattern from the United States of America. Universal suffrage with age and educational qualifications prevails. The central government m each republic consists of a President and two legislative branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives or House of Deputies. Methods of electing the President and members of. the Senate and the House vary somewhat, but di reedy or indirectly adhere to the principle of the rule of the people. The states or prov inces that constitute each republic generally have full freedom in their local affairs, although in several republics federal officers have more or less control. Theoretically, most of the South American governments are non-centralized re publics. Practically the federal government is a strongly centralized power. The population may be broadly divided, as far as government into two classes, the illiterate, ignorant and indifferent and the educated and enfightened, among whom are to be found lead ers ambitious and turbulent. Consequently the history of these goverrunents has been almost uniformly a story of intrigue, revolution, sanguinary civil war and domestic upheaval. Presidents have held themselves in power by bayonets, usurpers have arisen supported by the army and dictators have ruled under the name of presidents and nominally so elected.
' Central America.— The Central American republics are Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, San Salvador and Panama. Central America, after freeing itself from Spain in 1821, until 'which time it was known as the kingdom. of Guatemala, was attached to the kingdom of Mexico. In 1823 Hon duras, Nicaragua and San Salvador farmed an independent federal union, under the name of the United States of Central America. Subse quently the states dissolved this alliance and became independent, Guatemala in 1847, Hon duras in 1839, Nicaragua in 1858, Costa Rica in 1829 and. San Salvador in 1853. These repub lies are republics in little more than name. Each has a constitutional government and theoretically possesses popular suffrage. In form the federal authority consists of a Presi dent and two legislative houses. In fact, the government is always in the hands of a few strong men who exercise autocratic power. Revolutions are frequent, the factions resort to arms whenever desire or opportunity impels and there is frequently no security of life or property. Panama, which may, perhaps, be con sidered as belonging almost as much to South America as to Central America, was originally part of the republic of Colombia. When the latter country hesitated in coming to an wider standing with the United States in regard to the construction of the Panama Canal in 1903, the department of Panama seized the oppor tunity to secede from her associate. There was a bloodless revolution of a few days. Panama declared itself an independent republic and was recognized at once by the United States. She is now practically under the protection of the United States. See PANAMA.
West Indies.— In the West Indies is an island on which there are two nominal re publics, known as the Black Republics. Hayti, governed first by Spain and then by France, became free in 1793. First the free colored population gained the franchise in 1791 and then all the negroes in 1793 under the leadership of Touissant l'Ouverture acquired freedom. In the last century the island had varying for tunes, sometimes under English, French or Spanish domination, being twice an empire and several times a republic. San Domingo Republic, on the eastern end of the island, was estab lished in 1844. The government is in the hands of an elected President and two legislative houses, but control of affairs is constantly being changed by revolutions and the setting up of dictatorships. The republic of Hayti, on the western end of the island, has a similar his tory, under a like form of government pro claimed in 1867. In both republics the govern ment is in the hands of negroes and mulattoes who constitute almost the entire population.
Mexico.— From the time that Cortes con quered Mexico, 1519-21, that country remained in the hands of Spain for three full centuries. Finally in 1810 rebellion broke out and after 11 years' struggle, Iturbide, the liberator, was proclaimed emperor. Upon the deposition of Iturbide, the army organized a republic. For nearly half a century 'there was only the merest semblance of government of any kind. The history of the period is a record of anarchy, intrigue, revolution, military leaderships and dictatorships. In 1857 a constitution was formed, .but the existing condition of internal disorder did not terminate. The French made war against Mexico and Maximilian was cre ated emperor by a provisional government in 1862. Upon the execution of Maximilian in 1867 the republic was more firmly established, but it was not until as late as 1878 that under Porfirio Diaz the country became settled. In 1911 a revolution broke out against the Diaz government and a bloody civil war followed for nearly five years, finally terminating in the triumph of the Constitutional party under Carranza who became Constitutional President. (See Mexico — Myron). Mexico is a federa five republic, divided into states, each of which manages its own local affairs, while the whole are bound together by fundamental and con stitutional laws. The powers of government are exercised by a President, Senate, House of Representatives and judiciary.
Africa.-- On the western coast of Africa is the republic of Liberia which represents an attempt made by American philanthropists to prove the capacity of the negro race for self government. Founded in 1820 by the American Colonization Society, it was organized as an independent state in 1847 and acknowledged first by England and other nations of Europe and by the United States in 1861. The constitution of the republic is copied from that of the United States and the right of suffrage is inalienable to every male citizen who owns real estate. As no white man can be admitted to citizenship and as none but citizens can hold real estate, the republic is in absolute control of men of the African race. It is a fairly prosperous country but is heavily loaded with debt and has been constantly torn by political disorder. Executive power is vested in a President and legislative power in a Senate and House of Representatives. In the southern part of Africa the Boers of Dutch origin founded two republics. The Orange' Free State was established by Boers who in 1836 and following years quitted Cape Colony in order to separate themselves from British rule there. In 1854 the independence of the republic was declared and a constitution proclaimed. The legislative authority is vested m a single popular assembly elected by the suf frage of adult white males having property qualifications. The President is elected by uni versal suffrage. Similar to the history of the establishment of the Orange Free State is that of the South African Republic, known also as the Transvaal. It was formed by Boers who moved from Cape Colony and Natal and in 1852 its independence was acknowledged by Great Britain. A constitution was adopted in 1858. There was never lasting peace between the Transvaal and its British neighbors to the south. In 1877 the country was annexed to Great Britain, but the Boers gained their free dom again under the treaty of 1881. Great Britain acquired suzerainty over the foreign relations of the republic in 1884. Friction be tween the two countries continued unceasingly and finally culminated in open war in 1899 which resulted in the defeat of the Boers and the addition of the republic to the South African possessions of Great Britain.