ROBERT GUISCARD, geekar, THE RE souRcEnn., Norman-Italian soldier and noble, b. near Contances, Normandy , c. 1015: (1. Cepha lonia, Greece, 15 July 1085. His father was Tancred of Hauteville. His brothers William of the Iron Arm, Dgo and Hemphrey having gained distinction in Italy, Robert who bad developed into a strikingly handsome man, tall and blonde, with a dominating voice, as de scribed by Anna Comnena, in 1046, in his 30th year followed them, but was not warmly wel comed. He, however, soon became a leader of men during the tumultuous period of recon struction then being attempted in Italy. In 1057 he succeeded his brother Humphrey as Count of Apulia, and while their brother Richard conquered Capua, Robert with his youngest brother Roger completed the conquest of Apulia and Calabria. Previously looked on with disfavor by the papal authorities, in 1059 Pope Nicholas H concluded a treaty with Robert creating him Duke of Apulia and Cala bria and Lord of Sicily provisionally, on the conquest of the island. This, however, was not accomplished until 1090, five years after the death of Robert. He incurred excommunica tion in 1074 for attacking Benevento, a Papal Possession, 'but in 1080 was reconciled to Pope Gregory VII. who needed his assistance against
Henry IV. Having become master of southern territorial Italy, in, 1081 he embarked on a victorious campaign in the Balkan Peninsula against the Greek Byzantine Empire, champion ing the cause of Michael VII, who had been deposed by Alexius Comnenus, and whose son was his prospective son-in-law. In 1083 he was recalled to the aid of Pope Gregory VII, besieged by Henry IV in the castle of Sant' Angelo, Rome. lie raised the siege, quelled a revolt of the citizens by a three days' sadc of the city in May 1084, and re-established the Papacy. Returning to the Greek campaign he died of fever in the following year at Cepha lonia and was buried at Venosa. Consult Amatus, "Ystoire de 1i Normani' (ed. by Delarc, Rouen 1892) ; Chalandon, F.. 'Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sidle' (Paris 1907) ; Comnena, A., 'Corpus scriptores historicm Byzant' (Bonn 1839) ; Heineman, L. v., 'Geschichte der Normannen in Unteritalien and Sizilien> (Leipzig 1894).