Summer schools have become a strong and influential factor in the training of teachers. Harvard University was one of the pioneer institutions in America to give summer courses. Harvard has given such courses for 48 years. Martha:s Vineyard Summer Institute, organized at Cottage City, Mass., in 1878 by Col. Homer Sprague, has been one of the notable institu tions of this type. It was closed in 1905. In 1879 the Sunday School Assembly at Chautau qua, N. Y., organized a summer course. of psy chology and pedagogy which soon became an important centre for teachers. The courses for teachers was increased and the summer sessions now held at Chautauqua give several courses for teachers. After these and some other in stitutions had been successful in holding sum mer sessions the work was rapidly taken up by normal schools, colleges and universities, and the most of these important institutions in the country now hold summer sessions. About 800 summer schools were held in 1919 and the at tendance upon these was approximately 300.000. The enrolment at Columbia University ex ceeded 10,000.
Teachers' institutes were established in this country about the same time that normal schools were organized. In 1837 Mr. Stephen R Sweet opened a temporary school "for qualifying teachers for the winter schools" at Watertown, N. Y. Mr. Sweet contemplated holding a similar school in the late winter or early spring for the purpose of teachers for summer schools.° These schools were in session for eight weeks. In 1842 Mr. Sweet opened one of these temporary schools in the Kingsboro Academy, New York, and he called the school the "1Cngsboro Temporary Normal School." The work which he did in this temporary school is quite similar to that was later done in teachers' institutes. The schools organized by Mr. Sweet became known very generally as temporary schools for training teachers, or temporary normal schools. It is quite probable that Mr. Sweet obtained his idea of this temporary school from the work which was being done to train teachers in the training classes which had been organ ized in academies in New York.
In 1839 and 1840 Dr. Henry Barnard of Connecticut held a convention of teachers at Hartford. The purpose of these conventions was to improve the scholarship of those who were to teach and to discuss methods of pres entation of . subjects in the classroom. The work which was done in these conventions was also quite similar to that which was later done in teachers' institutes.
The term "teachers' institute,° however, was first used in New York in 1843. This undoubt
edly was the first institute organized in Amer ica. It was held at Ithaca and was organized by J. S. Denman, the county superintendent of Tompkins County. The fame of this institute became known and others were organized in different parts of the State. Within three years teachers' institutes were organized in Massachusetts, Ohio, Rhode Wand, Indiana, Michigan, New Hampshire and Vermont. It is probable that New York and Pennsylvania organized a more thorough system of institutes than was organized in other States. Institutes were abolished in New York State in 1912, and teachers' conferences under the direction of district superintendents were substituted there for. The law defining the power of a district superintendent in connection with these confer ences is as follows: " To assemble all the teachers of his district by towns or otherwise for the purpose of conferences on courses of study, for reports of and advice and counsel in relation to discipline, school management. and other school work, and fm Promoting the general good of all the schools of the Institutes are held in many States. In Pennsylvania and Ohio they form an important feature of the teacher training process. They are organized and managed generally by the superintendent of the supers isory district, county or city. Schools are closed for the period of the institute. which is generally two days in the cities and one week in the rural districts. Appropriations are made in some instances by the State and in others by the county to meet expenses. Fees are also paid by teachers. Attendance is usually compulsory. The method of instruction is generally the lec ture system. These lectures are upon subject matter, school discipline, school organization, school management, methods of instruction and popular and inspirational themes. In some in stances they depart from the primary purposes of an institute which is to improve the teaching force and take the form of community centres. In such cases they have become mass meetings instead of classrooms for instruction.
In 1895 the Paulist Fathers in New York organized an institute for the general improve ment of the teachers in Catholic schools. It is called the National Catholic Teachers' Institute, and under the general management of this or ganization provision is made for the mainte nance of local institutes in various parts of the country for the benefit of the teaching orders connected with Catholic schools.