The first great phase of the war was the invasion of France by Germany with the idea that taken unawares the French would be put out of the war before slowly mobilizing Russia could be dangerous, and then the German armies might be turned to the Eastern front against the Russians. The advance of German troops through Belgium proved not only a political mistake, costing the sympathy of the world, but also a strategic error. The Ger man armies were delayed in Belgium, affording time for French mobilization, though Belgium fortresses, supposed impregnable, rapidly crum bled before modern long-range high-explosive projectiles. The Germans approached Paris until the Eiffel Tower was in sight, when Von Kluck, commanding the German right wing, wheeled to the left (east) to cut off the French from their communications and precipitate a second Sedan on a far greater scale. On his exposed right wing a fresh army from Paris threw itself impetuously and the French centre under Foch holding, despite fierce attacks of Prussians and Saxons who were forced back, Von Kluck had to retire with immense losses and serious impairment of German morale. The plan of a short decisive war was at an end. The Germans entrenched and the long-drawn out trench warfare of the next four years began. As Ivan Bloch had declared 15 years before, the spade proved more important than the rifle. This first battle of the Marne, fought along the historic river where for centuries Teutons and Franks had met, is one of the decisive conflicts of history. The ultimate con flict of the war was to be a second battle of the Marne, which also went against the Ger mans. After the first Marne battle the German objective became the Channel ports instead of Paris, and the bitter conflict of the fall and winter was in the mud of Flanders along the Yser around Ypres. The English and Belgians, supported by the French under Foch, heroically held against the massed attacks of the Ger mans though at awful cost in men. The 'con temptible little" English army multiplied itself by valor. The Belgians, sturdily brave in mis fortune, opened the sluices as their countrymen had so often done before against enemies, and the Germans were kept from the Channel ports.
On the Eastern front corresponding ultimate failure of objective met the Central Powers. The Germans defeated the Russians signally at Tannenberg, taking many prisoners. In August 1914 the Austrians planned an offensive, invaded Russia, but were driven back into their own territory, tried to reorganize there and lost another great battle, which gave the Rus sians possession of Lemberg, capital of Aus trian Galicia. The Russians next invested the strongly fortified city of Przemysl, while the rest of their troops pushed on to the outskirts of Cracow, capital of Austrian Poland. Przemysl fell (March 1915) and the Russians from the heights of the Carpathians looked down on Hungary, which seemed at their mercy. The Germans had to rush men from their Western front to save the situation, and this afforded time for British army organiza tion. Serbia was overrun and suffered in tensely for the rest of the war. The Russians made a masterly retreat, came back under Brusiloff late in 1916, while the Germans were attempting Verdun and the Austrians were en gaged with the Italians in the Trentino and seemed in sight of victory. Austria had to
hurry picked troops from the Italian front and the Germans had to summon forces even from Verdun to meet the overwhelming attack which carried the Russians to the very gates of Lem berg once more and gave them nearly 500,000 prisoners. Encouraged by Russian success Ru mania entered the war on the side of the Allies 27 Aug. 1916. For a while her armies made progress against the Austrians, and there was hope of Russian co-operation, but the progress of disintegration had already begun in RusSia and the supplies of food and oil to be obtained in Rumania tempted the Central Powers to a great drive which completely overwhelmed the Rumanians. The armies of the Central Powers entered Bucharest under Falkenhayn and Mack enson 6 Dec. 1916, and for the remainder of the war Rumania had to suffer as an occupied country.
In the spring of 1915 an attempt was made to take Constantinople. English troops, strengthened by forces from Australia and New Zealand, who had come by way of the Red Sea, landed at Gallipoli. The expedition was badly managed and in spite of the most heroic bravery made no progress. An attempt to aid the land troops by the British navy was answered by such well-directed fire that im portant naval vessels were sunk. A later British invasion of Mesopotamia seemed at first destined to like failure. Kut-el-Amara was captured by the British, but they were sur rounded and had to surrender after intense suffering. Better organization led to the re capture of Kut, and Bagdad fell (March 1917) and Jerusalem was taken by the English troops (December 1917). One of the significant de velopments in connection with these expedi tions was the self-sacrificing loyalty of the Dominion troops to Great Britain. The Aus tralian-New Zealand auxiliaries (Anzacs) gave an example of bravery at Gallipoli that has never been surpassed. The Canadian troops stamped their names immortally on Flanders fields and proved second to none in the daunt less courage with which they attained objectives set them.
Having refused to take her part in the Triple Alliance with the Central Powers at the beginning of the war, Italy, unable to obtain the cession of Italia Irredenta, unredeemed Italy, that is territory occupied mainly by people of the Italian race still under Austrian rule, was forced by popular opinion to enter the war on the side of the Allies 23 May 1915. Gradually the Italian armies pushed their way into Austrian territory, greatly lessening Aus tria's power of resistance to Russian invasion, but making slow progress because of Alpine heights as the fighting terrain. The advance continued with some intermission all during 1916 and the greater part of 1917, when a sur prise attack of German-Austrian troops brought the defeat of Caporetto (24 October), due partly to a new mode of attack, but mainly to a defeatist propaganda among the Italian troops. All northern Italy was laid open to the invader and over 250,000 prisoners were taken. The coming of British and French troops steadied the Italians and there was an immense patriotic which strengthened the morale of the Italian troops. After this Italy proved a valu able factor in the war, claiming the attention of Austrian troops and proving a resource for Greece and the Balkan nations.